Relativism College Essays Samples For Students

The minimum concept of morality is an endeavour to recognize the basis of morality which is independent of culture. It assumes an objective quality of morality is present. In the view, to be happy in the short term, sometimes short term pain is required, meaning that happiness can vary with time. Morality is conduct with the guidance of impartial reason. Morality requires that we must have impartial consideration for every individual’s interests. Moral judgement must always have backing of good reasons. Rationality enables individuals to make choices which are free, enables them to be centres of action that ...

In this paperwork, I am going to demonstrate my understanding about cultures in conflicts drawing a minimum of ten key concepts introduced throughout the term.
When it comes to conservation, which plays a major role in culture conflict, it is clearly depicted that the Maasai are excluded by park managers from their traditional territory and resources to allow them practice conservation. The move of excluding the Maasai from their native land results into disagreement between the two parties, thereby, bringing up unnecessary fracas contributing to cultural conflict.

Through a literature review, it is noted that the Maasai herding systems thrives together ...

A Consequentialist is someone who believes that an action is only wrong or right depending on the nature of outcomes of the action. When consequences of the action are morally acceptable to the society, it means that the action is right thus; a person committing the action is has upright morals. On the contrary, an action is wrong when the consequences are ethically negative, and the person responsible for the action is deemed wrong. For instance, the case a driver preferring to kill one person crossing a road to save lives of many passengers on board could be argued consequentially. Consequentially, the ...

Human beings are social creatures who live in a society with different cultural backgrounds. Culture can be defined as characteristics or attributes of a particular group of people in the society who can be identified by their language, religion, music, art and even the way they dress, the culture is passed to different generation through learning. Culture has been there since of the evolution story and has evolved with human beings. Culture differs depending on the people living in a certain geographical area, age and also gender. Different nations have their own, the youth, and the adults also have their cultures that ...

People propose moral relativism on psychological grounds. The psychological reasons include psychological conclusions while subjective personal motives normally form powerful moral relativism sources as compared to the logical considerations. People consider moral relativism as objective logical arguments. The main motive for relativism is people’s deep desire to achieve happiness. In addition, fears correspond to the fundamental desires within. It is rather probable that such fear for moral absolutism makes people unhappy through making them feel even guiltier. For this reason, moral absolutism becomes unloving and uncompassionate. This good morality component has positive consequences while bad morality bears negative ...

- In this week's reading, the authors make a claim that public administration, at the level of service providers, is teleological. Explain why it can be argued that public administrators use a teleological approach. Do you agree or disagree?
According to the teleological approach, an action is considered ethical on the basis of the consequences of the action, long term effects of the action and if the action promotes the greatest happiness to others . The public administrators can be thought to use a teleological approach in their actions as their decisions are usually made on the basis of the possible consequences ...

Philosophy

Interpretation involves more than just representing information. It is a process of communication that intends to reveal in depth meanings to the information. It is a communication tactic whereby data gets translated from a technical language to an easily understandable language. Interpretation requires one to be interactive with the audience and begins by passing information that will raise their curiosity to know more. Understanding how they learn things will help in interpreting to them in such a way that they will hardly forget. According to Veverka, in his paper concerning interpretation, people will appreciate interpretation more if it communicates to them on the ...

Meaning

Ethical relativism is the situation that there is no universally valid or objective moral principle, because every moral judgment is a topic of human opinion. In other words, there are no right or wrong ways apart from what everyone considers to be as right or wrong.
Obviously, every individual has a responsibility to form their personal opinions about morality. Similarly, it is obvious that to find it more difficult to search the correct answers to ethical questions in comparison to finding the correct answers to arithmetic problems. But an ethical relativist goes ahead and claims, there are not any objective ...

Philosophy

Stace is of the notion of ethical absolution as opposed to ethical relativism. Ethical absolution claims that there is indeed a universal moral code to which every human being is obliged either knowingly or unknowingly. Ethical relativism however is of the contrary opinion. Ethical relativism is of the notion that morality is relative. People coming from different cultures and backgrounds have their own definition of what is considered morally upright and what is frowned upon by ethical eyes.it is therefore impractical for one person to judge the other on grounds of their moral standing since there is no universally acceptable ...

Cultural Pluralism refers to a situation where different society groups with distinctive cultures peacefully coexist together with a dominant group. Cultural pluralism gives individual ethnic groups the right to live by their terms and cultural heritages (Weisbrod and carol, 29). The concept of cultural pluralism enhances cooperation among endogenous groups of diverse lifestyles and family structures. In the united state of America, cultural pluralists have paid tribute to the significance of this concept in enriching the citizens’ way of life. Immigrants and native-born Americans have learned a lot from each other. This has broaden their views on education, art, history, cuisine, music ...

Cultural relativism is a belief in morality that places the moral authority with the culture instead of the individual. Right and wrong then are decided by consensus of the culture instead of some external law or individual conclusions based on what is right and wrong. As Russ Shafer-Landau discusses in chapter 6 of his book, this does not create a stable code of ethics that is consistent over time and across cultures, but instead a fluent code of ethics that is likely to change and sharpen itself. He writer “Each of these traits, in proportion as it reinforces the chosen behavior patterns ...

Cultural relativism has the notion that ethical or moral systems, which change from one culture to another, are equally right and there is no system that is better than the rest. In this theory evil or good has no ultimate standard, therefore independent judgments on wrong and right are the society’s product. Moreover, every opinion that one has on ethics and morality are subject to each person’s cultural perspective. Overall, not a single ethical or moral system can be taken as the worst or best and not even a specific ethical or moral position can be actually regarded as ...

Introduction

Mary Midgley argues the concept of ethical relativism that seeks to dictate the universal moral standards of the societal way of life. She bring in the lime light that the concept of moral doctrine is clearly associated with the various relative communities or the societies in the surrounding arena and definitely dictates their course of action with regards to the various matters that hold them.
The origins of the diverse doctrines originate from the various backgrounds that set the standards of the various beliefs that societies follow. An example is the sexual morality of which is reflected in ...

Introduction

Ethics refers to the branch of philosophy that deals with values relating to human conduct especially with respect to the wrongness or rightness of actions and also to the badness or goodness of the cause and ends of such actions (Franena, 1973). An ethical system is a set of correlated values that concern preferable modes of conduct. In other words an ethical system could refer to “a map of the good life” or “ground rules” that aids a person to make the right decision when in a dilemma. Several philosophers such as Emmanuel Kant, John Stuart Mill, and Jean Jacques Rousseau have over ...

Relativism can be in the form of empirical or normative and tends to relate to judgments an individual makes regarding a particular phenomenon (Siame 45). It is commonplace to have an observation that the globe consists of varying cultures and this clash on specific moral judgments. On the other hand, Li (151) asserts that cultures are different in many ways, but this does not constitute cultural relativism. Cultural relativists would assert that culture involves unchanging set of societal arrangements. Culture is itself a system that defines how a particular group of people have organized themselves in order to preserve ...

Is utilitarianism moral relativism in disguise?

Utilitarianism is a moral philosophical theory on how to evaluate a range of things involving the choices that people make or faces. The main principle behind utilitarianism is you do what results into the best consequences. Among the things analyzed in utilitarianism are the actions, character traits, moral codes, laws and policies. Relativism is a set of idea that some aspects or elements of culture or experience are relative to other aspects or elements. Relativism However, relativism is not studied as moral theory since there is a general agreement among philosophers that it cannot work as one of the moral; theory. Other hand ...

1. Introduction
God created all things visible, invisible, including all spiritual beings. God’s work of creation was good, both physically and morally. God blessed creation with all his loving-kindness. God has given responsibilities to all the living beings as a care taker of earth. Out of all creations the human begins is the dominant creation in the earth. The human begins framed a certain rules by themselves and they strict to that rules. Even they don’t know whether the framed rules are morally correct. There is lot of moral principles written by many people. Most of the moral ...

More than often, culture is learned, shared and patterned in the society through aspects of enhancing unified cultural institutional change throughout interactions among individuals. Nonetheless, diverse cultures exist in a social environment allows for increased constant interactions between internal and external cultural values that articulates in the concepts of ethnocentrism and cultural relativism (Spade & Ballantine, 2012). Even though, it is not easier to accept the beliefs, values and practices of other cultures it is essential not to become judgmental and harsher towards any specific cultural value and norms. More noticeably, ethnocentrism and cultural relativism remains as ways in which ...

For a long time, there have existed two opposing views in the study of moral and ethical norms of society. The first position can be defined as moral universalism. Proponents of this position believe that the entire international community, and each person separately, can be subjected to a uniform system of values ​​and laws. The second position is represented by moral relativism, the essence of which is the opposite view to the regulation of society. Moral relativism denies the existence of a common moral law for all people, arguing that there are many different cultures and each of them ...

Introduction

The principle of individual moral relativism posits that what is ethically right is dependent on the moral norms of an individual or the society where such act is normally practiced. The notion behind this principle is that there is no definite way to define what is ethically right, because ethical values are relative to an individual or culture. For instance, what is considered to be ethically right in one culture may not receive the same treatment in another society. The difference in the perception of what is ethically right is attributed to the fact that culture differs across societies, ...

While humanity has solved the problems of providing running water and electricity, the issues of morality remain sticky wickets for societies to figure out – and even for individuals to puzzle out on their own. While in many cases it might be easier, at least for the collective, for all individuals in a particular social group to share the same morals, just about every attempt at creating a morally homogenous society, at either end of the spectrum, has failed. Whether it was the Puritans (or the modern day Taliban) creating a theocracy and setting up a system of laws that govern every aspect of ...

Ethics/Fundamentals of Ethics by Russ Shafer Landau

1.) Write an essay explaining the difference between monistic and pluralistic approaches to ethics. Give an example of a monistic theory, and explain why it qualifies as monistic. What are the two main types of pluralistic theories? Is ethical pluralism preferable to ethical monism? Defend your answer.
Monism is used to explain a philosophy which considers only one Supreme Being in the universe. It explains all expansions and survival of creation which includes mental and corporal or spiritual beings. Monism in ethics is the belief of being optimistic or idealistic. A pluralistic approach to ethics on the other hand contains ...

Scientific methods in social science are important and the play a vital role in the scientific research method. Scientist believes in gathering information through experiments, interviewing and other means and analyzing the information unbiased. Sociological research is a means of getting the information regarding different phenomenon by the application of scientific means. It is important because social hypotheses can be proved true or wrong by use of scientific methods. Again, scientific research follows a given a specific plan, either qualitative or quantitative with an aim of defining a cause of something or the relationship between different variables.
Critical thinking ...

Cultural Relativism can be defined as the principle that a person’s belief and activities should be understood regarding his or her culture. Among some of the most fundamental rights is the freedom of worship and religion. In most countries, there is freedom of worship. One cannot be forced to abide by a particular religion just because the law in that country believes in a different religion. Many times you hear the discussion about cultural relativism versus the universal rights and democracies. In countries like Saudi Arabia, the conference is considered as an unnecessary waste of valuable time ("Saudi ...

Virtue Ethics and Relativism on Military Ethics

I. Introduction (200 words)
Military ethics has been in existence in times immemorial. Tribes, communities, and sovereign governments from around the world have at times in their history engaged in either just or unjust wars. The rationale behind armed fights and wars is for soldiers to protect their own lives, people they serve, and state. The moral question that seem to perplexed some individuals and groups is whether it is morally right to kill others in order to preserve one’s life, particular society, government, and even posterity. Such a moral questioning is an ethically significant issue because modern ...

Utilitarianism and Kantianism

Utilitarianism, Virtue ethics and Kantianism are examples of normative ethics. In these theories, there are three components which characterize every action: the consequences of the action, the action itself (which also include the motive of the action), and the agent (the doer). Utilitarianism deals with the consequences of the action. On the other hand, deontological theories (Kantianism and divine command theory) are concerned with motive/action. Virtue ethics, however, is concerned with the doer/agent (Stewart, 2009).
Utilitarianism and Kantianism
Utilitarianism. Utilitarianism is derived from the word utility. In utilitarianism, an action is deemed right only if its outcome is to ...

Ethical and cultural relativism have been defined as differences in opinion among people from different cultures as a result of their belonging to such cultures. Put differently, as a result of growing up in different cultural environments, people acquire certain sets of beliefs which are distinct from those of persons who grew up in other cultures. The end result is that both groups of persons have different beliefs about what is right or wrong as a result of the cultural conditioning that they have undergone. Proponents of the cultural relativism school of thought have argued that as a result of these differences in ...

1. Critically examine cultural relativism as an ethical theory.
Every individual belongs or associates oneself with a certain culture. There are many different cultures in the world with each having different ethical rules. Cultural relativism in philosophy is the view that morals are culturally determined and there is no better ethical system than the others (Manuel Velasquez, Claire Andre, Thomas Shanks, S.J., and Michael J. Meyer, n.d). The question that arises here is whether those cultures have a definite system of morals or not. It is evidently clear that any society has a specified rules and guidelines that determine what is ...

Introductory Remarks (problem statement, research questions presentation, thesis)

Non-consequentialism, relativism, and absolutism as philosophies and ethical theories will be central to the research into the nature of media portrayal of different minorities in various states and the way the theories and philosophies shape people’s perception of such representation. Portrayal is often the problem due to it being incomplete, biased, or distorted for a variety of reasons, whether political or otherwise. Besides evidence and opposed attitudes, the project will offer practical recommendations as to how to improve the coverage of different minorities.
Thesis statement: non-consequentialism, relativism, and absolutism influence how people perceive the problem of the inadequate ...

Question One

Ideally, cultural relativism is a philosophical perspective, which suggests that it is difficult to make judgements or assessments against other cultures.
I think cultural relativism promotes ethical action because it advises individuals against passing judgement against other cultures, thereby promoting cultural cooperation and appreciation (Cahoone 34).
Furthermore, it helps individuals to accept as well as be tolerant towards other cultures that they do not understand. As a result, it promotes cultural tolerance and acceptance, which is an important ethical action.

Cultural relativism promotes cultural understanding, which helps individuals to respect each other’s culture (Cahoone 38).

Question Two
On the other hand, cultural relativism is not a sound theory because it does not promote ethical ...

Introduction

Society has been distinguishing the concepts of good and evil since the ancient times. So, we can say that it had a specific morality - the system of moral relations, feelings, and consciousness. The morality is the central question of ethics, and still relevant to our society.
Among the ethical systems I have learned, there are virtue ethics, utilitarianism, social contract, deontology with goals (Hinduism and Buddhism), deontology with divine authority (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam), relativism (individual and cultural), and deontology with a categorical imperative (Kant). So, I would like to say a few words about each of them.

Ethical Systems

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Philosophy

Introduction to Philosophy
1. What are the three major branches of philosophy and what questions do they deal with?
The three major branches of philosophy are metaphysics, epistemology, logic and axiology. Metaphysics is the study of the nature of reality. Epistemology is the study of the nature of knowledge. Logic is the study of the nature of arguments, while axiology is the study of the nature of value, indicating what is good and what does goodness mean.
2. Discuss the value of philosophy.
Every human being lives on the basis of an overarching philosophy, whether through rational analysis or ...

ID Number

Introduction

Food industry is the largest and the most critical part of our society. As a matter of fact, it has already reached an estimated sales of four trillion dollars globally in 2002 (Regmi and Gehlhar, 2005). Moreover, the food industry is the main producer of nutrition for the entire population. Dell’Aquila and Cioffi (2004) focused on fresh vegetables and fruits and discusses that EU rules are counterproductive by increasing neither the import nor the export of quality products. Vancauteren and De Frahan (2006) estimated a model called the structural gravity, and stated that bringing together of food policies ...

In order to ensure peace and prosperity of a country, most governments have employed the use of stringent rules and regulations to govern people. However, some people stray away from the common perception of government and embrace anarchy. Anarchy is basically opposite of what the government stands for, anarchism is a political ideology (Carter, 1971) that holds the state undesirable and harmful while advocating for stateless institutions. The view of anarchists stray away from the commons masses and more often they tend to go extreme and cause social disturbance and unrest (Gage, 2009)as was the case of the ...

The underlying makeup of human nature has been a primary focus of many philosophers throughout history, particularly the relationship between the individual and culture. According to noted psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud in Civilization and its Discontents, civilization is made up of individuals, each with their own anxieties and personality traits, their own needs and priorities being the essential focus of human nature. However, Ruth Benedict is much more focused on culture as the vehicle that establishes consistent actions and thought patterns that can be found within societies, each of which must be accepted and tolerated as individual to them. Comparing ...

Utilitarianism and Universalism

Introduction of the Concepts
Utilitarianism is comparatively an older concept that highlights the morality of an action based on its impact on maximum number of people in the world. An action is considered moral, if it provides maximum happiness to maximum number of people around the world (Tsoukas, 2011). On the other hand, Universalism is comparatively a new concept that highlights that that there are few action, which are categorical imperative regardless of their impact on others. Both Utilitarianism and Universalism expounds the basis for our actions. These theories guides an individual to choose the best and morally correct ...

Introduction

As history has so often proven, there is not one single philosophical concept that can acquire widespread acceptance without any form of criticism. The advancement of education has availed different skills and tools to scholars to question and challenge some of the philosophical notions and sometimes come up with notions of their own. This has consequently resulted in intensified debates and arguments about various philosophical concepts. In recent years, the academic world has been plagued by skepticism about knowledge. Various arguments have been brought forth about the nature of knowledge, its sources and its basic structure and form.
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1. Cultural relativism is defined as the widely accepted position in the world. It is the idea that views the moral and ethical standards in such a manner that they vary from culture to culture. As such, there is no culture that can be said to be superior or better than the other (All About Philosophy 1). It argues that all moral values and arguments within the cultures are valid. The foundation of the cultural relativity is that there is no ultimate standard of good or bad. As such, the judgment that can be said to be good or bad ...

Philosophy Questions

1. Ross’ s Moral Theory is considered to stand between Kant’s strict deontological theory and theological theory of utilitarianism. According to the philosopher, there existed several prima facie duties that people had to hold in respect if they did not contradict one another. In case they conflicted, human’s intuition would help to make the right choice and find the weightiest and the most important duty. Ross stated that any prima facie obligation could be redefined by more important ones. While Kant saw all obligations absolute and exceptionless, Ross allowed maximization of the good as one of the ...

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Introduction

Generating profits from products made through the use of asbestos is unethical. Organizations have a responsibility to guarantee the safety of employees. Secondly, it is unethical to knowingly expose an employee to a harmful chemical. Employees have a right to a workplace environment that does not lead to safety issues. Recklessness and disregard for the safety of employees mean that corporations are only interested in profits but not the life and safety of employees. Furthermore, Australian Securities and Investments Commission (ASIC) engage in unethical practice by trying to stop victims from being compensated. My argument is ...

Introduction

There are business transactions that were reported to have been undertaken without due adherence to ethical standards. Business ethics has been regarded as essential in each and every dealing to avoid animosity and conflicts. One of the ethical dilemmas that continue to pervade contemporary settings pertain to marketing to children. In an article entitled ‘Marketing to Children: Accepting Responsibility’ written by O'Brien (2011), the author presented ethical concerns regarding the need to assume due responsibility and accountability for some advertisements that are directed to children. As evident, some of the advertisements, especially those promoted by fast food chains like ...

In Allan Bloom’s book The Closing of the American Mind, he essentially argues that the modern liberal idea of cultural and societal pluralism is leading to an inability to perform critical thinking. Essentially, instead of saying one of two differing choices is better, one would simply ‘see the merits’ in both – this leads to us not forming opinions of our own, but instead offering a milquetoast acceptance of everything that dilutes our experience. While these concerns are valid, these arguments do not necessarily correlate to an objective assessment of how critical thinking works, and instead reads as a grumpy treatise ...

Moral Development is the study of how people’s moral values – defined as the guidelines for differentiating between what is considered good and bad – originate, develop and evolve from the time of their birth, into puberty, onwards into adulthood and eventually into old age, leading up to the end of a person’s life. Philosophers such as Aristotle and Immanuel Kant posited that the importance of learning ethics and moral behaviour is to enable individuals to achieve self-actualization or become their best-possible selves by realizing their potential . Therefore, an individual’s or a society’s moral development cannot be ...

According to Pojman (2006), hedonistic utilitarianism is one of the major perspectives of the general notion of utilitarianism. In order to understand its essence, it is imperative to discuss the underlying meaning of utilitarianism as advanced by Pojman (2006) who indicates that it is pegged on the end results rather than the process or means an act is performed, and which is responsible for causing maximum satisfaction to the greatest number of individuals. In this regard, two major views in utilitarianism are fronted by Jeremy Bentham.
According to Bentham, utilitarianism adopts two main features, a teleological aspect, and a ...

The first image that comes to mind when thinking about the ethical implications of defense engineering is the first scene in the movie Real Genius, where several men who represent a counsel of defense are sitting around a table watching video clips of a new weapon that is being developed at Caltech University. This was an idea for the end of the 20th century. The movie was filled with ethical questions and moral imperatives that imply the ideas of ethical technology in the military.
Science, University Students, and Engineers make a significant contribution to the advancement of defense technology. ...

Looking at the globe, people observe different areas of our huge planet and mostly all these areas are inhabited by citizens of multiple races, languages, cultures, moral values and various outlooks. The question of judgment what is right and what is wrong in different cultures concerns the popular scientific approach of ethical relativism. Ethical relativism isn`t focused straightly on ethics and morality but on cultural values and tendencies of the particular social surroundings. These values are not commonly moral for the whole world`s society and can even be immoral in other cultures and nationalities. It`s an ...

Since the introduction of computers, human lives have been improved tremendously. Computers and computerized systems have become part of the human lives. They are used in everyday day, in almost all the industries and wings of life. The government and private sectors have endorsed the use of computers and computerized systems in all their operations. The good thing about this is that their works have been made more efficient and faster. Human labor has even been replaced in some industries by the computers and computerized systems. The performance of the employees is even monitored through computerized systems which is ...

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Social Contract Theory: Social Contract Theory was founded by Thomas Hobbes, a renowned English philosopher. According to this theory, the moral and political obligations of individuals depend upon an agreement (contract) among them for the formation of the society they belong to. The purpose of this contract is the establishment of a constitutional act for keeping the political body subordinate to moral values. Hobbes believes that social contract makes it possible for human beings to continue their survival on this planet. He maintained that by contracting socially, men surrender their inherent liberties for enjoying the safety and ...

Introduction:

Muslim women and their stereotype have always been the topics of discussion, particularly in Western Media. The Western media has created a dark and negative image about entire Muslim community and Muslim women. They are treated either with sympathy or suspicion. In United States and other Western countries, a certain image has been created about Muslim women. This image is certainly not positive. The Muslim women are underestimated and people do not believe in their ability to change the world. I want to put before the readers some facts about Muslim women through which I want to refute such misconceptions. That ...

Introduction

One of the most complex aspects of human existence in the modern world at present include the need to handle medical operations. The reason for such complexity is the involvement of different human elements into the system. Such human elements include emotion, culture, tradition and at times even religion. The field of medicine has been incurring several developments through the years. And somehow, the most common point of medical development incurred is mostly dedicated on how nurses and other medical practitioners could handle particularly complex situations involving human elements that could intervene with the procedures they want to engage ...

Cultural analysis in anthropology is used to collect data on cultural phenomena as help in the interpretation of this cultural representation and practices. The aim of cultural analysis is to help in gaining the new knowledge and understanding through the analysis of the collected data and collected processes. Cultural analysis helps in the understanding and mapping trends, influences, affects and effects within cultural. There are four themes for sociological, educational analysis on how culture is used to survive, as an adaptation and change. Expressions and holism, as well as, specify.
Cultural anthropology has been apprehended with divergent rationalities ...

Do cultures determine what is good, right, correct and acceptable or are there basic human virtues that determine what is wrong, good, moral action and morally good? Or are morals universal and applicable to all cultures? This paper seeks to determine the characteristics of both sides and determine whether there exists a common ground between the two points of view.
Rosenstand, (2012, pg 146) points out that the concept of normal is properly a variant concept of good. Benedicts also asserted that normality is culturally defined i.e. what a society takes as good, right, correct action or morally good or what ...

Female Genital Mutilation otherwise called female circumcision is a practice done in Africa and some parts of Islamic Asia. At the onset, of the 20th century, Christian Missionaries tried to stop this practice terming it barbaric and insulting to the rights and dignity of women. However, successful lobbying by governments and local NGO’s argued for the practice citing euro-centric attitudes in shunning the practice that was embedded in the culture of African people. In the last twenty years, successful campaigns have been made in stopping the practice by a more culturally relative approach. This paper explores the powerlessness of women ...

1. Moral Agent
The Ford Pinto case is based on the constant explosion of Ford Pinto due to poor and defective fuel systems. The design led to several debates regarding the strategies applied by Ford for cost cutting measures. There was a clear lack of ethics, as the company was unwilling to upgrade the fuel system for the benefit of its customers.

2. Issue
The main issue is that Ford was willing to risk safety over reducing production costs, even when the cost for upgrading the fuel system would be $11 per car.

3. List of Possible Consequences

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