Abstract
African-Americans are a significant part of the American population and comprise of people with African ethnicity and ancestry. Their original introduction to American society through slavery contributes considerably to their sense of heritage, kinship and plays a role in their culture and belief systems. Since the start of the slave trade in the sixteenth century, African American culture has been influenced by African, European and American environments. These conditions have mainly affected aspects of their speech, language, religion, creative expression and general way of life. Centuries of biased legislation and segregation have led to the creation and promotion of negative African American Stereotypes in society. Although their strife during the centuries of slavery has been poorly documented, African Americans have managed to uphold a unique and distinct culture that sets them apart. However, their individuality and identity has made them victims of discrimination and hate crimes. The negative stereotypes and labels attached to African-Americans in today's society are signs that changes in reform within governments and social institutions are necessary.
Africans Americans were first introduced to the American continent in the sixteenth century as captives of the Trans-Atlantic slave trade through a route dubbed the middle passage (Adi, 2012). The brutal treatment and poor housing conditions of slaves led to more than two hundred and fifty incidents of slave revolts in America (Dodge, 2013). The Stono Rebellion of 1739 is one of the earliest documented revolts by African American slaves that resulted in the Negro Act of 1740 that prohibited slave assembly. During the slavery era revolts by African Americans almost always resulted in increased legislature that restricted their movement, communication and occupation (Dodge, 2013).
After the abolition of the importation of slaves in the early nineteenth century and the abolition of slavery by American Congress in the early and mid-nineteenth century, African Americans began the struggle for their recognition as American citizens with equitable access to resources. The Civil Rights Movement of the mid-twentieth century represents a series of conflicts African Americans faced in the fight for freedom and equality. Gander (2007) notes that movements such as the Montgomery Bus Boycott, Birmingham March and Selma to Montgomery March were important campaigns for the improvement of legal rights for African-Americans, women and other minority population existing in the United States. The Civil Rights Movement was fruitful and saw the enactment of The Civil Rights Act that prohibits all forms of discrimination.
Beliefs and Culture
Historical racial hierarchies continue to influence African American belief systems (Collins, 2008). African American values, beliefs, and way of life are subjective to their history from slavery to freedom, and this has influenced their kinship bonds, religious orientation, family roles, support networks, attitudes towards government, communication channels, and general lifestyle. It can be argued that the African-American way of life is a deliberate way to rebut core values enforced during the slavery era (Dodge, 2013). African Americans are aligned to have strong kinship bonds, strong religious orientation and a general distrust of government systems.
Their belief systems could be a consequence of segregation laws and policies that have been active for the better part of their history, necessitating their responsibility towards each other. Moreover, religions namely Christianity and Islam within the black community continue influence family structure, gender roles and belief systems within the community. The adoption of non-African forms of religion among African Americans is a direct influence from their colonial masters during the slavery era. It can be reasonably assumed that enslaved Africans abandoned their traditional beliefs to live and survive within the slavery system (Dodge, 2013).
Beliefs in family structure, gender roles, spirituality, and work ethic are primarily drawn from religious their belief systems. The belief in the concept of spiritual evil has been found to be higher in women and African Americans. Such religious beliefs among African American are influenced by education level, social status, and religious traditions about supernaturalism (Baker, 2008).
Culture can be defined as the patterns of behavior, beliefs and products of human thought among people who share a unique characteristic such as such as ancestry or religion (Scott, 2005). African American culture is a combination of African and American mannerism patterns since the introduction of Africans into America. Culture is an inherent part of human survival because it forms a significant element in the formation of individual identity and people's way of life. African American culture can inform about social heritage, underlying values, ideals, social standards, norms, and approvals.
African American culture is drawn from a wide range of cultures spanning across both Africa and America and their shared history of slavery, acculturation and oppression confers a bond of African heritage. African American culture is distinct in its heritage, patterns of music, dance, self-expression, speech and relationships (Scott, 2005). A significant portion of this culture is synthesized from the people's interactions during slavery. Distinctive elements such as religious beliefs incorporate them into the larger society while their unique and distinct patterns in speech and artistry set them apart.
It is through their African heritage, that African Americans inherit their spirituality, innovativeness in creative artistic forms such as music, dance, art and literature. European and White American environments have also contributed to their culture by influencing their religious identity, social heritage, and language. Coming from a history of enslavement, African American culture has evolved over the years and is widely excluded from White societies and institutions (Baker, 2008). The resulting patterns of their behavior, attitudes, and ideals amidst a segregated community have led to the development of distinct institutions such as BET (Black Entertainment) and FUBU (For Us By Us) which celebrate African American cultural ideals.
Discrimination in Education and Careers
The development of Black institutions is a result of the discrimination faced by African American groups historically to present. Discrimination in education began during the slavery era where African Americans were deprived of the right to education. The abolition of slavery yielded a segregated society where all social amenities, including educational bodies, were racially divided. During the era of de jure (segregation by law) financing of schools was biased against the African American population (Dodge, 2013). After the struggle for freedom and equality discrimination in education towards African Americans is evident by the inadequate funding of educational facilities in poor neighborhoods which hold higher black populations (Loubert, 2005).
Despite existing legislations that aim to eradicate discrimination in education brought about during periods of segregation and slavery, the implementation of these unbiased laws are yet to be felt in lower socio-economic levels with high minority populations. Because funding for public education is conjoined to local property taxes, and the majority of the African American populations occupy low socio-economic status, equality in the distribution of funds to public schools within the country remains an impossibility (Loubert, 2005).
The consequences of discrimination within education systems have resulted in a significantly lower number of Black students qualifying for college due to poor academic qualifications and economic hardships. Loubert, (2005) notes that in regards to college attendance, black students are more likely to be academically unprepared and more liable to face economic hardship. African American’s face discrimination within the education sector primarily through inadequate funding regimes that go uncorrected by the federal government.
The inequality in education systems continues to cause a vicious cycle of unemployment and poverty within African American societies. Statistics show unemployment rates of more than 50% for Black men without a high school diploma and less than 9% of college graduates (Loubert, 2005). These statistics go uncorrected because federal funding for public American school systems remain biased, and minority groups continue to face numerous challenges in work environments. As a minority group, African Americans face discrimination in the form of negative racially motivated attitudes, employment biases, and a lack of mentors within career networks. Moreover, studies reveal that college educated Black Americans have greater difficulty in securing employment compared to White counterparts (Fernandes & Alsaeed, 2014).
Discrimination and social stereotypes fuel education attitudes among minority populations and employer preferences in the workplace. Negative attitudes in the work environment promote notions that minority populations are lazy, uneducated, immoral and not as smart as their Caucasian counterparts. Discrimination on the basis of race encompasses harassment, denial of access to employment prospects, underestimation and partial treatment (Fernandes & Alsaeed, 2014). In the work environment, African Americans usually have to deal with sexual and racial harassment, verbal abuse, threats, derogatory remarks and epithets at the workplace.
Affirmative action presents an opportunity in American societies to remedy past discrimination and promote diversity in social institutions. Since its conception, women and minority groups have benefited slightly from it. Research shows increased employment rates among minority groups especially in firms with federal contracts that are subject to affirmative action (Blau & Winlker, 2005). However, this trend is not evident in private companies that lack federal contracts. Consequently, the benefits of affirmative action in employment are estimated to be moderate. Although not yet wholly accepted by employment institutions in America, affirmative action is a sure way to increase job opportunities for women and other minority groups.
Stereotypes and Labels
Stereotypes and labels about African Americans and their culture have existed since early colonial settlements. Gender and racial stereotypes are designed to hurt and intimidate their intended target. African American males are perceived as aggressive and physically threatening while women are thought to be loud, irrational and aggressive (Cogburn, Chavous & Griffin (2011). In the education systems, a significant percentage of teachers perceive African American students as inferior to white students and has influenced teacher assistance and response in helping students develop cognitive skills (Loubert, 2005). This has resulted in an increased number of high school dropouts and low test score within the African American community.
The media continues to play a vital role in propagating negative stereotypes of African Americans. Blacks are often portrayed in different types of media as aggressive, illiterate and violent beings. In the early era of American history, African Americans were represented in images such as the Sambo, Jim Crow, the Savage, Jezebelle and Aunt Jemimah. (Fujioka, 1999). The Sambo and Savage are image representations that depict a black American male as a simple minded creature heavily dependent on his master for Guidance. Female African American stereotypes are aligned towards sexual innuendos and gender roles. As Jezebelle, African American women are branded promiscuous and immoral. In contrast, stereotypes such as Aunt Jemimah and Mammy confer asexual identities and are more likened to occupational roles such as cooks, cleaners, and caregivers.
The prejudices that have existed and continue to exist in American society have not only created stereotypes; they have been used to justify numerous atrocities against the members of the African American community. With 34% of hate crimes targeted towards African Americans, the community remains the most victimized group of people in America (WSJ, 2016).
The United States Department of Justice (2014) defines a hate crime as the violence of intolerance against an individual because of their race, ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, nationality or disability with the intention to hurt and intimidate. Since the inception of slavery in America, African Americans have been victims of brutal crimes such as lynching, sexual harassment, and battery. In the year 2014, approximately eight thousand hate crimes were reported across America with 66% of the perpetrators being Caucasian and 20% being of African American decent (Department of Justice, 2014).
Civil unrests such as the Rodney King Riot can be seen throughout American's history where the justice system failed to hold perpetrators of hate crimes accountable for their actions. African American communities often respond to such social injustices through violent and non-violent demonstrations. The Rodney King Riot was sparked by the acquittal of police officers accused of using excessive force during the arrest of Rodney King. Given the status quo and nature of hate crimes, it is the responsibility of governments, institutions, and the media to advocate for healthy interracial relations using policies, programs and other viable forms of communication.
Status of African Americans in Current Society
African Americans have come a long way since slavery. Their struggle for freedom and equality has borne fruit that can be seen through the civil rights act. They now have access to social amenities that were they were denied in previous eras of slavery and segregation. The election of an African-American president in 2008 can be seen as an indication that the bridge towards racial and ethnic divide is coming to a close.
However, in spite of existing legislature on equality and non-discrimination, African Americans and other minority groups still face various forms of discrimination. More ought to be done in the implementation of affirmative action across private institutions. Fernandes et al. (2014), notes that the implementation of affirmative action has resulted in more indirect and less obvious discriminatory practices in work environments.
While victims of discrimination can now freely seek justice, it is important to hold governments and the media accountable for discrimination in governance and the promotion of negative stereotypes. Probably the most important element with the potential to positively change the majority of African American lives is the equitable distribution of resources. Governments should lead the way to impartiality by implementing existing legislature as guidelines for social structure.
Black culture is undoubtedly distinct. With heritage and history as critical elements of African American identity, this community continues to make its stamp in American societies. Their survival spirit coupled with their strong desire for equality and equity will continue to mold America’s conscience.
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