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Question 1
Renaissance is a period in European civilization that was characterized by values and classical scholarship. Biow indicates that the exploration and discovery of new continents, growth of commerce, a decline of the feudal system, establishment of the Ptolemaic system of astronomy from Copernican, and a lot of innovations happened during the renaissance period (18). Burckhardt adds that the period led to a revival of classical learning with a decline in cultural activities and stagnation (12). The origin of the Renaissance dates back to the 15th century when Greece and Rome experienced a classical downfall. There was the transformation of political, social, and intellectual activities that culminated in the Renaissance. Holy Roman Empire and the Roman Catholic Church’s failure to achieve unification and provide a stable framework that satisfies spiritual and material life led to a renaissance where people eagerly developed national languages, the rise of city-states, and national monarchies were established while experiencing the breakup of the old feudal structures. Despite taking up many forms, Renaissance was established by humanism, who were secular men of letters based in Italy. Among Renaissance predecessors included Dante and Petrarch, together with chief protagonists such as Lorenzo Valla, Leonardo Bruni, Coluccio Salutati, Marsilio Ficino, and Gianozzo Manetti (Biow 18). Humanism gained strength after the fall of Constantinople in 1453, leading many eastern scholars to seek refuge in Italy.
Various character traits defined humanism. First, all achievements and manifestations reflected human nature as its subject. Second, humanism was developed on trustworthiness and transparency to achieve unity and compatibility based on all philosophical and theological attributes that define syncretism doctrine. Third, humanism emphasized dignity instead of penance, considered the highest and noblest form of human activity during the medieval period. Finally, humanism was characterized by the existence of wisdom and the human spirit where spiritual and intellectual outlook and development of knowledge were consolidated and attributed. One key aspect of humanism was to free men from mental structures imposed by religious orthodoxy while inspiring free inquiry, criticism, and new confidence in the possibilities of human creations and thoughts. The humanist spirit and Renaissance in Italy spread north to all parts of Europe and were aided by printing as part of inventions that acknowledged literacy and embraced classical texts that explosively grew.
The spirit of the Renaissance was achieved through art since art was believed to possess knowledge. For instance, it was through artistic work that the images of God and his creations and the position of the universe were coded. Most protagonists in Italy embraced art and science that were utilized to explore nature and various discoveries such as world visibility and mathematical principles of balance, perspective, and harmony (Burckhardt 14). Renaissance in Italy was preceded by proto-renaissance where Franciscan radicalism was established during the late 13th and early 14th after formal scholasticism was rejected by St. Francis of Assisi. Many Italian artists and poets were inspired to explore the world around them. The Renaissance period led to the introduction of many ideas in literature, philosophy, art, and science. It was considered a rebirth since it revived ancient classical Roman ideas.
The origin of the Renaissance is Italy but it later spread all over Europe while influencing centuries of culture. The reasons why Italy was an ideal place for a renaissance are as follows. First, Italy was the birthplace of Antiquity referred to as the Roman Empire. There was a temporal loss of incredible art and ideas of Roman times when the empire fell in the 4th century and coupled with subsequent dark ages but later discovered in Italy around the 12th century (Scavizzi, 2019). This prompted for Renaissance since the adopted ancient texts by Italian writers such as Francesco Petrarch and Date Alighieri ignited a growing fascination throughout Italy. The ideas of the two writers impacted all aspects of society leading to the Renaissance. Second, Italy was a wealthy nation with the ability to promote Renaissance. Italy was a wealthy and prosperous nation that throughout the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries saw the development of successful trade deals with Eastern Europe and Asia that increased its capital. There were various wealthy merchant families such as the Medici family that promoted financial freedom and aided most of the finest artists to generate income through a series of public and private commissions. The merchant activities led to more money with more businesses for artists.
Additionally, Italy was a wealthy nation due to the existence of the Black Death which promoted the Renaissance. There was a plague during the dark ages that wiped out much of the Italian population and those who survived had plenty of jobs and employment opportunities after the economy bounced back. Finally, Renaissance began in Italy due t the power invested in the Vatican and the existing wealthy patron of the arts. The progress of the Renaissance forced cultural activity to shift from Florence to Rome, resulting in the High Renaissance period. Rome was under the leadership of the powerful patrons referred to as the Vatican, whose role was to take care of the ancient Roman Empire with the desire to restore Rome back to its glory.
One important attribute of the Renaissance across Europe is that it helped them to leave their fixed ideas rooted in the Middle Ages and adopted innovations that define the modern world we cherish today. There was the rediscovery of ancient Greece and Rome civilizations that inspired Europe to adopt classical learning that challenged medieval beliefs and ideas. As per Sadullaev many people became wealthier due to increased trade, travel, and the exchange of new ideas that changed the culture and European learning (113). For instance, German citizen Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press that revolutionized communication after the Renaissance period experienced tedious handwritten work and education that was reserved for wealthy citizens. The idea of Gutenberg helped the middle classes in Europe educate themselves with scientists easily sharing work to achieve faster and more accurate discoveries. The discovery of the printing press by Gutenberg led to educational reform in Europe. A popular contribution of the Renaissance in Europe is its influence and contribution to the arts. The work of Titian, Leonardo da Vinci, and Michelangelo focused on the studies of the human body rather than dwelling on traditional depictions of iconography and religious figures (Keith 247). The rebirth also helped Europe move away from teaching observations attributed to religion and embraced scientific reforms and discoveries that embraced practical observations. For instance, Sir Francis bacon accompanied by his contemporaries came up with a scientific model using hard evidence where scientists drew their inspiration and used the model to understand the basics of human anatomy.
Throughout the Renaissance, what we know as biology, physics, and chemistry were known as natural philosophy that was developed to stimulate the birth of modern science. Many scholars used philosophical models to question the natural world. In the process, William was behind the development of the theoretical grid known as the Ockhams razor that aimed to reject the rationale and belief of universals. Mikolaj Kopernik was also a scholar whose Renaissance helped him come up with a heliocentric theory that described planetary motion (Randles 56). The period led to various discoveries and scientific research models that impacted Europe and the whole of the world. In a nutshell, Renaissance led to improved communication, trade, and living standards for many people in Europe since there was a high level of literacy and education while the nation opted to adopt classical learning that challenged medieval beliefs and ideas. The rebirth also helped Europe move away from teaching observations attributed to religion and embraced scientific reforms and discoveries that embraced practical observations.
Question 2
Christianity and Islam are two major religions. Both evolved from ancient Rome and the Middle East, respectively. Christianity had Apostolic, Metropolitan, and Papal phases, whereas Islam had the Islamic Golden Age. Each religion's theological and administrative evolution is unique. This essay explores Christianity's three stages, from its ancient Roman beginnings to medieval Europe. It compares Christianity to the evolution of Islam in the Middle East, exploring Islam's fundamental teachings, divisions, and political aspects.
Overview of Christianity's Origins
Christianity is founded on Jesus of Nazareth's life and teachings. Christianity evolved from first-century Palestine's rich culture. Two significant historical and cultural contexts reveal Christianity's advent: (1) ancient Jews' Israelite ancestry and (2) Greeks and Romans' history and ethos (Robinson 1). The religion started as a small Jewish sect that followed Jesus, a Nazareth rabbi. Jesus was supposed to be the Messiah who would deliver the world from sin and death. Noticeably, Constantine converted to Christianity in the fourth century, becoming the Roman Empire's official religion (Burbank and Cooper 40; Jerryson 177). This pushed Christianity throughout Europe and beyond, where it became the dominant religion.
Overview of Islam's Origins
Islam is a monotheistic religion founded on the 7th-century CE teachings of Muhammad. As God's ultimate prophet, Muhammad is considered the restoration of Abraham's original monotheistic religion (Rastogi 52). Islam's Qur'an contains Muhammad's teachings. In 610 CE, Muhammad, a Mecca merchant, began receiving revelations from the angel Gabriel, according to Islamic mythology (Spencer 34). The Qur'an was revealed over 23 years. Muhammad told the people of Mecca that there was only one God worthy of worship and to reject all others. During the period, several gods were worshipped in Arabia. Many Meccan authorities rejected Muhammad's monotheism message. Muhammad was compelled to flee to Medina in 622 CE, marking the beginning of the Islamic calendar (Ferguson 38). Muhammad found a more receptive audience in Medina and founded the first Islamic state.
The Evolution of Christianity
Apostolic Period
The Apostolic Period of Christianity is the time after Jesus' death and resurrection until the last of the original 12 Apostles died. During this time, the Apostles promoted Christianity, founded churches, and composed the New Testament. The period is remembered for Peter healing the lame man and Paul's miraculous prison escape. The period is considered crucial to the formation of Christianity.
Metropolitan Period
The Metropolitan Period of Christianity begins with the rise of the Roman Empire and the spread of Christianity. It marks the creation of the five Patriarchal Sees of Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem, as well as the diocesan system and Church hierarchy. Creeds, councils, liturgies, and monasticism mark this time.
Papal Period
The Papal Period of Christianity began with Pope Gregory I's election in 590 CE and concluded with the Reformation (Cohen 121). During this time, the Roman Catholic Church was Western Europe's primary force, and the papacy was the world's most prominent religious and political authority. The papacy shaped Church theology and governance. It helped create Europe's legal system and spread Christianity outside Europe.
The Evolution of Islam
Basic Teachings of Islam
The Five Pillars of Islam form the foundation of Islam. First is the statement of faith (Shahada) that there is only one God, Allah, and Muhammad is his prophet (Griffo 14). The second pillar is daily prayer (Salat). Third, Muslims must provide charity (Zakat) to the needy. In Ramadan, Muslims fast (Sawm). The fifth pillar is a pilgrimage to Mecca once in a lifetime for those who can (Griffo 14). These Five Pillars are the basis for a life of faith in Allah and His teachings.
Islamic Golden Age
In portions of the Middle East and North Africa, the Islamic Golden Age saw religious, political, and cultural growth. During this time, Islam split into Sunni and Shi'a (Tanenbaum Center for Interreligious Understanding 74). Sunnis followed the Qur'an and hadith (sayings of Muhammad). The Shi'a believed in a dynasty of imams who succeeded Muhammad and were the religious authority. During the Islamic Golden Age, both branches of Islam were strongly represented and influenced culture and society.
Comparing Christianity and Islam
Doctrinal Evolution
The doctrinal evolution of Christianity and Islam can be compared in terms of the fundamental tenets of each faith. While both faiths share similar beliefs in the concept of a single God and the importance of living a life of moral uprightness, there are some critical differences in how each faith approaches its respective doctrines. Christianity has developed through a variety of reformations and changes over the centuries. Initially, Christianity was a Jewish sect focused on Jesus of Nazareth's teachings, emphasizing the New Testament's teachings (Guo 210). Over time, the faith gradually became more organized with specific creeds and doctrines. This development is attributed mainly to the formation of the Nicene Creed in 325 CE, which established the core beliefs of the Christian faith (Candelaria 55). This creed also established the main distinction between Christianity and other religions: the belief that Jesus was the son of God who was sent to redeem humanity. Islam, on the other hand, was founded in the 7th century and has since undergone significant changes over the centuries. Unlike Christianity, Islam does not have a single creed or set of doctrines but rather a variety of interpretations of the Qur'an and the Hadith or Sunnah, which are the primary sources of Islamic teachings (Örtenblad 238). This diversity of interpretations has resulted in several different sects and denominations within Islam, each with unique beliefs and practices.
Administrative Changes
Christianity and Islam's doctrinal evolution can be contrasted using their core beliefs. While both faiths believe in a single God and moral uprightness, they approach their principles differently. Christianity has seen reformations and modifications since its inception. As pointed out earlier in the preceding discussion, Christianity began as a Jewish sect centred on Jesus of Nazareth and the New Testament. Over time, the faith evolved creeds and teachings. The Nicene Creed, written in 325 CE, established the Christian faith's essential beliefs. This creed established Christianity's primary distinction from other religions: the idea that Jesus was God's son sent to redeem humanity. Islam was created in the 7th century and has changed over time. Unlike Christianity, Islam has a diversity of interpretations of the Quran and Hadith, their fundamental sources of teachings.
Political Impact
Christianity and Islam are important world faiths that have influenced international politics. Both have similarities and differences. Christianity and Islam both influenced the governmental organization of many nations. Christianity and Islam have been used to justify political structures and laws. Both religions have shaped the legal systems of numerous countries, influencing law interpretation and justice. Christianity and Islam legitimize social and economic policies, which is another similarity. Christianity and Islam have been utilized as a basis for philanthropy, social justice, and poverty alleviation.
Conclusion
The evolution of Christianity and Islam throughout the ages has been a fascinating journey. From their beginnings in ancient Rome and the Middle East, they have grown and adapted to become two of the world's most influential religions. Christianity, with its Apostolic, Metropolitan, and Papal stages, has evolved from its roots in ancient Rome to its pinnacle in medieval Europe, with its doctrinal and administrative changes. Similarly, with its basic teachings and the Islamic Golden Age, Islam has grown from its root in the Middle East to become a significant player in world politics. Both religions have similarities, such as in their core beliefs, but also differences, such as the political sides of Islam and Christianity. Despite their differences, both religions have significantly impacted the world, and their evolution has been studied for centuries.
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