Witchcraft and Gender in Early Modern England
Witchcraft has long been a fascination of artists and authors throughout the world and in early modern England, this fascination was rife. Traditionally, witchcraft is closely associated with women and frequently, its presentation throughout art forms involves the image of the female form. However, it is clear that in doing this, we are deliberately ignoring half of the gender relationship and fundamentally misunderstanding the gender roles of men and women in early modern England (Apps & Gow 6). A common misconception is that witchcraft was a metaphor for the oppression of women by men but, in truth, this is most likely to be the case when a mass panic spread out about witchcraft. The question of gender in witchcraft is a fascinating one which raises questions of gender in early modern England as a whole.
Frequently, witchcraft and the pursuit of witches was seen as a way of men to oppress women but this is now seen as being an overly simplistic view of witchcraft (Sharpe 10). This view is further compounded by the various images of male witches throughout the art world such as the wood engraving by J. Van der gucht which features on the cover of A System of Magick, or, A History of the Black Arts by Daniel Defoe. It shows a male witch examining a series of astrological symbols, as if forming a prediction by consulting the stars – a strong sign of witchcraft then. Some claim that witches are ‘made’ locally and were done so due to the “crossing of male-designated boundaries rather than being restricted to a specific female space” (Apps & Gow 6). In truth, this idea of women being persecuted as witches for ‘over-stepping their mark’ seems prevalent although it still does not address the idea of male witches too, such as the man in the above image. Perhaps these men were individuals who did not conform to the expectations of masculinity at the time and were, as such, persecuted for being ‘different’.
The stereotypical image of a witch is of an old woman and indeed, Daniel Defoe discusses this at length, stating that “by these they called the familiar devils, the Pythons and Apollyons of their acquaintance, about them, whatever occasions made it necessary for them to speak with them” (Defoe 131-32). However, it would seem that Defoe viewed these demons as having a differing effect on the character of men and women: women being directly visible whereas men are more subtle, and he states: “But here we converse with the men, knowing nothing of what they are, and do not see the Devil that is within them” (Defoe 138). The suggestion here is that men’s demonic behaviour is more acceptable than that of women, giving rise to the idea that both male and female witches are enabled by demons but that it is only when women are, that it is most noticeable: in other words, a misogynistic take on acceptable behaviour for either gender.
It is impossible to discuss the idea of gender and witchcraft without raising the idea of feminist discussions. An early feminist view of the male persecution of female witches was the idea that men attempting to dominate medical science in the pursuit of controlling people’s health (Toivo 175). It is clear from this view that arguably, male witches were less notably persecuted as they were simply just men behaving as men wished as opposed to the stricter guidelines issued for women: if a man makes a development in terms of medicine then it is a recognised breakthrough but if a woman does, then she is overstepping her mark and deemed a ‘witch’ by society. However, it is when we assess the views of heresy that the idea of male witches truly comes into play: “Women were, to be sure, well represented in medieval heretical sects, and their prominence in these groups might have reinforced their later identification as witches, but men were even more active in these sects and for that reason could easily be suspected in connection with the new ‘heresy’ of witchcraft” (Levack 143). This idea helps to explain the gender divide between male and female witches: if women did not fulfil their gender stereotypes then they were deemed witches but men, who held much more freedom than women, were deemed witches when they were involved with heretical circumstances – crossing the line between what was socially acceptable and what wasn’t.
It is clear from this that witchcraft and gender in early modern England were closely linked, although not necessarily for the immediately obvious reasons. One main factor here is that witchcraft was used as an excuse to extensively attack those who did not fit into their social roles, be that in terms of gender or their conformity with social expectations such as those of the Church. Male and female witches are rightfully equal in their refusal to conform and suffered as a result of this.
References
Apps, Lara & Gow, Andrew. Male Witches in Early Modern Europe. New York: Manchester University Press, 2003. Print.
Defoe, Daniel. A System of Magick, or, A History of the Black Art. Oxford: D.A. Talboys, 1840. Print.
Levack, Brian P. The Witch Hunt in Early Modern Europe. Harlow: Pearson Education Ltd, 2006. Print.
Sharpe, James. Witchcraft in Early Modern England. Harlow: Pearson Education Ltd, 2001. Print.
Toivo, Raisa Maria. Witchcraft and Gender in Early Modern Society. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Ltd, 2008. Print.
