Asian immigrants were, for many years, the silent victims of American westward expansion. When Americans were expanding westward in pursuit of Manifest Destiny, they were not doing all the work themselves. Manifest Destiny was the widely-held belief by many Americans that America was destined to expand across the current-day United States. During the 1820s all the way through the 1860s, Americans from the east coast of the United States expanded across the United States, seeking a variety of different things-- some sought land, others new experiences or natural resources. Everyone who participated in the American westward expansion carried some kind of goal. However, with this period of westward expansion came a need for labor, and labor, like today, did not necessarily come cheap. Asian immigrants-- particularly Chinese immigrants-- were used extensively as laborers during this time.
During the early 1800s, there were already Chinese immigrants moving from China to the United States. China itself was in turmoil during this time, and immigration to the land of opportunity where jobs were promised and opportunities were open to all seemed like an excellent prospect to many Chinese people (Oakton University). However, the rate of immigration changed drastically around 1850, when the westward expansion of Americans from the east coast to the west coast became a full-fledged flood-- the Gold Rush stirred many people into action, prompting them to move across the country in search of prosperity (Oakton University). When this began, Chinese immigrants, who most commonly entered the United States through the Port of San Francisco, began to participate in the Gold Rush in unique and notable ways. The Chinese immigrants to the United States had the same drive for prosperity and success that the Americans from the east coast did; from the Port of San Francisco, many of them traveled elsewhere in California, doing a variety of different jobs and seeking their fortune in prospecting and labor (Oakton University).
There were many jobs that were done almost exclusively by immigrants from Asia during the Gold Rush. According to the Library of Congress, Chinese immigrants to America who came during this time “emigrated to the United States [were] part of a larger exodus from southeast China searching for better economic opportunities and fleeing a situation of political corruption and decline. Most immigrants came from the Pearl River Delta in Guangdong (Canton) Province. Chinese immigrants proved to be productive and resourceful contributors to a multitude of industries and businesses. The initial group of Chinese argonauts sought their livelihood in the gold mines, calling California Gam Saan or Gold Mountain. For the mining industry, they built many of the flumes and roads, allowing for easier access and processing of the minerals being extracted” (Library of Congress). These immigrants, although they were both industrious and hardworking, often faced extreme prejudice in their daily lives. Asian immigrants to the United States during the westward expansion and the era of Manifest Destiny not only had to face prejudicial treatment from their host country, the United States, but also faced problems within their communities.
While racism is certainly not dead today, there were many issues that were faced by immigrants in the past that are not faced by immigrants today. In the past, the American legal system was overtly racist, reserving the right of citizenship and naturalization for only white, Anglo Saxon individuals (Library of Congress). It was not until later in the history of the United States when the legal system would become more open and inclusive; during this time, the rights of immigrants-- particularly of immigrants who did not fit the ideal American stereotype-- were very limited (Library of Congress). This was particularly an issue for Chinese and other Asian immigrants to the United States during the Gold Rush, as they often had to work long hours under the direction of bosses and supervisors who cared little for their personal safety, needs, or future (Library of Congress).
Immigration has always been a contentious issue in the United States, because the United States is a nation founded on immigration and separation from the home country. In the history of the United States as a nation, there have been many examples of American citizens treating people of different races and ethnicities extremely terribly in the name of nationalism and American pride (Merk and Merk). The Chinese immigrants to America were particularly influential in the years leading up to and immediately following the Gold Rush, helping immeasurably with the process of westward expansion and helping many Americans chase the dream of Manifest Destiny by helping to build the Transcontinental Railroad in the late 1800s (Merk and Merk). Without the Transcontinental Railroad, expansion across the United States would have slowed or even stopped in the latter half of the 19th Century. With the completion of the Transcontinental Railroad, supplies and people could be moved much more quickly and effectively across the United States (Merk and Merk). This project changed the face of American history forever, and Chinese immigrants were instrumental in the completion of the project. Without the participation of the Chinese immigrants, the first Transcontinental Railroad would not have been the cultural, technological, or industrial force that it was.
The first Transcontinental Railroad was a project that was undertaken during the early years of the Gold Rush. During this time, the gold in California was relatively plentiful; it was easy for prospectors and laborers to make good money mining gold and working in the gold mining industry (Merk and Merk). During this time, the Chinese immigrants were not seen as a threat to the white laborers, and were tolerated, if not accepted (Merk and Merk). However, as time went on, the amount of gold that was available easily in California declined, and the Chinese immigrants began to be seen as a threat to the livelihood of the white laborers. The white laborers were becoming uncomfortable with the Chinese immigrants because they were willing to work harder for longer hours and less pay; this was seen as a significant threat to the livelihood of the white laborers in the western parts of the United States (Regents of the University of California).
The philosophy and mindset behind “Manifest Destiny” also contributed to the problems faced by the Chinese immigrants to America during the Gold Rush and in the years immediately following the Gold Rush (Wu and Chen). The idea of “Manifest Destiny” suggests that Americans-- ostensibly white, male Americans, as these were really the only Americans with full rights at the time-- had the right to expand westward into the territory occupied by other peoples. Manifest Destiny suggests that Americans were ordained by God or some higher power to move westward, and to command and conquer the land that they came across (Wu and Chen). The Chinese immigrants that were helping build the infrastructure necessary to move the country forward were seen as a threat to the dreams of many Americans who believed deeply in Manifest Destiny and their birthright of expansion, granted by their American citizenship (Wu and Chen). This nationalism and entitlement translated into xenophobia, fear, and anger at the Chinese immigrants that were acting as skilled and hardworking laborers in the West (Wu and Chen).
Despite the fact that without the labor provided by Chinese laborers, the project of the Transcontinental Railroad may not have been completed as quickly as it was, the Chinese faced a serious cultural and legal backlash in the latter half of the 19th century in the United States of America (Merk and Merk). Asian immigrants to America-- many of whom were not Chinese, but were assumed to be because of cultural insensitivity-- were looked down upon by white laborers in the west. The white laborers considered them to be a threat to their livelihood, and treated them as such; these white laborers, who had much more political clout than the recent Asian immigrants, forced a series of laws through both the local governments and, eventually, the federal government (Merk and Merk). The Chinese Exclusion Act was passed in 1868, largely in response to the large numbers of Chinese and other Asian immigrants that were flocking to the West Coast as a result of the Gold Rush and the promise of a better future (Merk and Merk).
The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1868 was the cumulative result of a number of different factors, and it had a detrimental effect on the Asian immigrant community on the West Coast of the United States for many years to come (Merk and Merk). According to Merk and Merk, “Despite the fact that the Chinese filled an important labor need and proved to be extremely hard workers, white laborers resented their presence, and anti-Chinese riots took place in many western cities like Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Seattle. Giving in to heavy political pressure, the federal government intervened by implementing the Chinese Exclusion Act (1882), and the U.S. Supreme Court supported the government's stance in subsequent rulings” (Merk and Merk). The rioting of the labor force was pressure enough to put aside the positive things that the Asian immigrants did for the United States-- such as build the first Transcontinental Railroad-- and continue to marginalize them as a minority group for many years (Merk and Merk).
The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1868 was implemented because of the fears of the white laborers in the west, but it had far-reaching consequences. The Act stipulated that Chinese could not immigrate to the United States for employment in the gold mines, and that very few Chinese could legally immigrate to the United States (Merk and Merk). Those who could immigrate to the United States legally had to receive special permission from the Chinese government, ensuring that their immigration was indeed legal and that these individuals did not have any intention of working in the mining industry (Regents of the University of California). The Exclusion Act did have its intended consequence in some ways: it froze immigration from China and Southeast Asia, effectively ending all immigration of the Chinese to the United States until the mid-twentieth century (Regents of the University of California). However, the Act and the racial discrimination that came along with the Act also led to the formation of Chinatowns, which are a unique and interesting socio-cultural adaptation to the prejudices faced by Chinese immigrants in their everyday lives (Regents of the University of California).
It may seem strange, in the context of the United States’ legal system today, to see institutionalized racism of the type contained within the Chinese Exclusion Act. Even in the most extreme political climates, today’s legal system would not allow such blatant discrimination against a particular group. Institutionalized racism and other types of racism still exist, of course, but racism of the type exemplified by the Chinese Exclusion Act has largely fallen by the wayside. However, during the time when the Chinese Exclusion Act was signed into law, it was incredibly effective at keeping most new Chinese and Asian immigrants out of the United States. Those immigrants who were already here began to react to the racism that they were experiencing, leading to some very interesting social and cultural phenomenon.
One of the most interesting cultural phenomena that happened as a result of the Chinese Exclusion Act was the formation of what would become known as chinatowns. Chinatowns exist in most major American cities today, but they were originally places for Chinese immigrants to exist outside the control and outside the sphere of prejudice that they faced on a daily basis (Wu and Chen). Similarly, they were places where Chinese immigrants could hear and speak their native tongue without fear of violence or retaliation by easily-angered white laborers who may have feared the Chinese and their place in American society. The first American chinatown was formed in San Francisco, and to this day, it remains an integral part of the city. The culture in San Francisco’s chinatown is not the same as the culture from the Chinese province of Guangdong, nor is it the same as Hong Kong culture; it is a unique blend of American culture and Chinese culture that cannot be found elsewhere in the world (Wu and Chen).
San Francisco’s chinatown can easily be seen as a refuge for the Chinese and Asian immigrants to America who were facing extreme prejudice from Americans, but these communities were not without problems of their own. San Francisco’s chinatown was more densely populated than the rest of the city, and with that dense population came many problems, not the least of which was disease. During the early 1900s, there was an outbreak of bubonic plague in San Francisco’s chinatown, an outbreak that led to the quarantine of chinatown (Wu and Chen). It is reported that police would stop anyone attempting to leave the area if they were of Asian descent, sending them back into the quarantined area, regardless of their status as an American (Wu and Chen). During this time, the local government also began to act harshly against the residents of chinatown, burning and sanitizing buildings in an attempt to keep the plague from spreading. However, the residents of chinatown were used to harsh treatment as a result of their ethnic status, and began to threaten the local government with lawsuits if they continued to burn and sanitize without permission (Wu and Chen). While the government acted too quickly in terms of burning and sanitizing personal belongings, and the actions of the government would not have been tolerated if the recipients had not been Chinese, their actions arguably kept the bubonic plague from spreading to the entirety of San Francisco (Wu and Chen).
Every immigrant group that came to the United States faced some form of discrimination, almost without exception. Although white males were always able to vote and participate in the American political process, the social and cultural definition of what constitutes “white” has changed many times over the years. While attitudes regarding the Chinese as a group have shifted over the years, there is certainly a long history of oppression and prejudice against the Chinese that is present within American society.
The Chinese immigrants who came to the United States during the early and mid-1800s are responsible for the labor that built the first Transcontinental Railroad. In addition to this labor, they are responsible for much of the labor that was done during the Gold Rush, and their hard work and industriousness allowed many Americans to strike gold and become rich during the early years of the Gold Rush. However, a confluence of political philosophy and ingrained racism caused the American people to lash out against Chinese immigrants even though their labor built much of the infrastructure that is fundamentally important to the West Coast.
The Chinese self-sequestered themselves into little areas of cities that became known as Chinatowns, with San Francisco’s chinatown being one of the largest in the world to this day. Although the Chinese Exclusion Act forbade more Chinese laborers from entering the country after 1868, the Chinese who were already in the United States built thriving communities and worked very hard to be successful in the United States, even though they faced incredible amounts of institutionalized and de facto racism.
Institutionalized racism is a very difficult issue for an immigrant group to deal with, especially one that struggles with a language barrier. Institutionalized racism, or racism that is endorsed and enforced by the state, can severely limit the prospects a group has in a specific place. During the years following the Gold Rush, the institutionalized racism in California prevented many Chinese immigrants from truly integrating into society. When a group cannot integrate into society because of institutionalized racism, there will be problems with de facto racism even once the institutional racism has been legally addressed.
The myriad problems faced by Chinese immigrants in the United States during the early years of their immigration are certainly not unique, although the circumstances that the Chinese and other Asian immigrants faced were somewhat unique. As a result of the many different problems that they faced, they reacted in such a way to insulate their group against the threats of the outside world. This led to the creation of insular, tight-knit communities. These communities offered protections that the government did not, but they also led to problems, as they were often overcrowded and poor. Although the situation has improved dramatically today, there are still very insular communities that exist for recent Asian immigrants to the United States. The trends that were put in place early in the inception of the United States continue to this day, especially in places like New York and San Francisco.
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