Adolescents face a variety of unique stressors and circumstances once they reach the secondary school level. Regardless of the country of origin or the type of school system that the student is attending, there are problems that are unique to the developing social skills and greater world awareness that comes with adolescence. Teachers and other adult caregivers who are tasked with guiding adolescents through this tumultuous time in their lives are faced with unique challenges as well, and the field of psychology has provided a number of different theories and methods for addressing the issues of learning during adolescence. Both behaviorist and constructivist theories offer different but equally valid methods for instructors and caregivers in terms of the challenges of adolescence. Each theoretical approach to the issue of adolescent learning within the secondary-school environment has its strength and its weaknesses; however, a thorough discussion and understanding of both theories is paramount when determining what the proper course of action should be in any given academic or educational situation.
Adolescents in the secondary-school environment face myriad challenges that change and evolve over time. These issues can be broken down into three groups: the first group addresses inherent characteristics of the adolescent, such as the individual’s gender, culture, ethnicity or sexual orientation, and how these characteristics exist in harmony or at odds with the adolescent’s current learning environment. The second group of issues are motivational issues; these are both personal to the individual adolescent and informed by the circumstances that the adolescent is facing. Lastly, the individual student’s intelligence, ability, and behaviors also link closely to the methods that the instructor or caregiver must use when interacting with the student in a secondary-school environment. Both constructivist and behaviorist theories offer potential solutions to the issues faced within each of these groups; although the solutions are sometimes different, differing perspectives can offer the instructor or caregiver new insight into student behavior and potential solutions.
Behaviorism was introduced and examined first by Skinner, who suggested that behavior and learning are determined by the environment and the outcome of each action that an individual takes (Steele, 2005). Conversely, constructivism as introduced by Piaget and Vygotsky suggests that learning is influenced heavily by the nature and experiences of the learner (Steele, 2005).
Gender, Culture, Ethnicity, and/or Sexual Orientation
The experience that an individual has within his or her culture is fundamentally important to his or her development in adolescence. According to Berger (2003), development in adolescence is a time where the individual’s personality and perception of his or her place in the world is being developed; without careful guidance and acceptance by the adults in a young person’s life, the young person can easily become disillusioned or unclear about his or her place in the world.
Constructivist theory suggests that people are inherently creative, and that they are self-driven as learners (Cobb, 2001). Behaviorism, on the other hand, suggests that repetition and recency of actions are fundamentally important when establishing desired behavior in an individual (Steele, 2005). Fundamentally, the two theories are separate: behaviorism allows for learning to happen gradually, over time, with no sudden, insightful bursts of knowledge (Child, 2004). Constructivism, on the other hand, proposes the opposite: that learning is an organic, learner-driven process whose speed is determined by the individual learner (Child, 2004).
Within a positive behaviorist learning environment, a skilled educator can take into account differing experiences based on gender, culture, ethnicity, and/or sexual orientation. Steele (2005) suggests that a problem-based learning environment where students are guided by an instructor who is clearly in charge of the discussion can be an efficient way of minimizing issues that set children or adolescents apart on an uneven playing field. Steele (2005) suggests that the facilitator of learning can, in this instance, minimize undesirable behavior through negative reinforcement, and encourage desired behavior through positive reinforcement. Whether the issue is cultural differences, ethnic differences, or some other rift that sets certain students apart from others, behaviorism suggests that the instructor can engage the learners in the learning process and ensure an equal opportunity to learn and engage for every student, regardless of their personal background (Steele, 2005). Behaviorist theories are learning theories that allow the educator to provide a safe and fair environment for all students; the purpose of the behaviorist approach is to engage all students in the process (Steele, 2005).
Conversely, the constructivist approach to teaching students with different ethnic, cultural, gender, or sexual orientations is not to generalize the learning experience; instead, the constructivist approach allows the educator to individualize the learning experience (Child, 2004). Children or adolescents who experience isolation or ostracization from the group based on an inherent characteristic like gender or ethnicity may face unique challenges in the classroom.
Rather than attempting to provide the equal problem-based learning environment that behaviorism suggests, constructivist theorists suggest allowing the student to drive his or her learning environment (Richardson, 2003). Steele (2005) writes, “One of the key ideas associated with constructivist theory is that learning should be meaningful and related to real life situations (Grobecker, 1999) In social studies, students could role play lawyers, judge, and jury for a simulated court case or conduct an election for classroom leaders instead of memorizing the related procedures and policies.” In this way, constructivist theories encourage the student to engage in the learning process through the lens of his or her own experiences based on cultural identity, gender identity, and so on and so forth.
Motivational Issues
It is no secret that adolescents are sometimes prone to motivational issues. Adolescents often test the boundaries of the authority figures in their lives, and with that often comes a lack of participation in the learning process (Conger, Ge et al., 1994). Motivational issues are treated as undesirable actions by behaviorism, which prescribes negative reinforcement or punishment for undesirable behavior. Negative reinforcement, or the avoidance of an unpleasant response due to the stoppage of a certain behavior, may be applied passively by the instructor, whereas punishment is an active response to bad behavior by the instructor (Conger, Ge et al., 1994). Essentially, motivational issues in terms of behaviorist theory are solved via the application of the law of effect: for every action there is a reaction, and the effect that is expected is what drives the individual’s initial impetus for behavior.
Motivational issues for constructivist theorists and instructors motivated to use constructivist theories in the classroom can be difficult. Behaviorist reliance on punishment, reward, and reinforcement can easily find their way into the constructivist classroom as a default (Steele, 2005). However, according to Richardson (2003): “Social motivation involves enhancing personal, social, and emotional competence in students A decline in motivation may be inevitable for many middle school children but this is a problem that can be addressed Any new concept in education involves hands on activities. These can be goal-oriented activities that motivate students. Positive motivation certainly isn’t new. It works just as well in today’s hands-on classroom. Motivation to encourage a student to move from extrinsic motivation to intrinsic is an essential part of today’s hands-on style.” Essentially, rather than relying on reinforcement, reward and punishment based on an individual’s behavior, constructivist theory suggests engaging students further in the learning process and providing them with alternative, goal-oriented activities that allow them to feel the short-term rewards of motivation and engagement.
Intelligence, Ability, and Challenging Behaviors
Behaviorism suggests that an instructor or caregiver can change an individual’s actions based upon repetition of reward for desired actions, and the discouragement of bad or undesirable actions (Child, 2004). Behaviorism suggests that the class must be kept in strict order, with students acting in the way that is deemed appropriate by the authority figure or figures in the classroom. Any deviation from this behavior will result in punishment or adverse responses (Psunder and Ribic Hederih, 2010). Similarly, behaviorism mandates the same treatment and expects the same results of all students in a classroom, regardless of ability; this can lead to frustration on the part of the students, but can often lend itself to a quieter, more subdued classroom environment (Psunder and Ribic Hederih, 2010). The focus on achievement rather than knowledge is one of the most lambasted sections of behaviorism in the educational environment. Behaviorism fails to take into account some of the issues discussed earlier: notably, it does not take into account the individual in the learning process. Cultural differences, ethnic differences, or differences in gender are taken into account in the behaviorist classroom in the context of removing these differences, rather than recognizing the individual in the learning process.
Constructivism, conversely, makes grand concessions to the individual’s ability and intelligence. Constructivist classrooms encourage student-driven learning, and mandate that the instructor provide the student with an environment that builds upon his or her current knowledge base (Psunder and Ribic Hederih, 2010). The instructor may use a variety of different methods to build upon this base, but the learning should be student-driven and individualized, according to constructivist theory. Students who present challenging behavior must be taught and guided in a different manner; constructivist thought suggests that challenging behaviors indicate a lack of interest in the learning process-- thus, it is a failure of understanding on the part of the educator, rather than a failure of punishment or reinforcement (Psunder and Ribic Hederih, 2010). Challenging behavior, according to the constructivist school of thought, should be addressed through further understanding of the individual student and his or her background; a disinclination to work or learn is indicative of some issue in the process of constructivist learning.
Conclusion
Each learning theory offers something unique to the field of educational theory, but classrooms are not run on theoretical approaches. Much like the hard sciences, real life and the human experience is often set apart from theory-- it is messier, and there is more room for error. However, understanding the different learning theories allows the educator to make the best decisions possible regarding the classroom environment for adolescents under his or her care. A carefully-designed and applied mixture of behavioral and constructivist learning philosophy can assist an instructor in creating a welcome learning environment for all his or her students.
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