Introduction:
The morality of genetic research can play out in many ways. Two broad fields of concern are that of genetically engineered organisms and the ethics involved in the use of human stem cells taken from zygotes and human embryos. Another issue is the patenting of the genome and how that affects medicines and the rights of people to “own” their own cells. Of special concern is that bio-engineering might escape and have long term adverse effects as the manipulated creations cross genetic structures with other biological elements in the environment. This paper will look at the general ethical concerns involving cellular manipulation and bioethics with a particular focus on how the manipulation of genetic material can cause future unforeseen repercussions when these organisms escape and combine with other natural organisms.
Thesis:
Bioengineering living organisms poses a special concern in that many of these have the ability to escape and to cross with non-engineered verities and create unforeseen problems.
Annotated Bibliography:
Aqua Bounty Technologies Press Release. (2013, 11 25). AquaBounty Cleared To Produce Salmon Eggs in Canada for Commercial Purposes. Retrieved from The Wall Street Journal: http://online.wsj.com/article/PR-CO-20131125-903183.html
This Wall Street Journal Article is sourced solely from a press release by AquaBounty, as such it presents the positive aspects of genetically engineered salmon and none of the potential negative features. There is no supporting documentation for any of the safety, health and environmental impact claims.
Never the less, this does present an opposing view point to the many critics of GMOs and therein lies its value.
AquaBounty. (2013). AquAdvantage® Fish. Retrieved from AquaBounty: http://www.aquabounty.com/products/products-295.aspx
AquaBounty is a company that developed GMO salmon and this page describes the salmon they will soon be exporting to Canada. They describe their Atlantic Salmon as being infused with a Pacific Chinook salmon gene that will enable them to grow larger, faster than their native counterparts.
Because it presents an opposing viewpoint to the concerns expressed by so many other scientists and consumers it is relevant to the issue of the ethics of bio-engineering.
AquaBounty. (2013). Our mission. Retrieved from AquaBounty: http://www.aquabounty.com/
AquaBounty’s Mission Statement is to enable an aquaculture industry that will essentially grow fish larger, faster and with less food than their wild counterparts.
This is a praise worthy goal and is in contrast to the people who are convinces that they are only concerned about profits
Atwood, Margaret. "Organinc Farms." White, Fred D and Simone J Billings. The Well Crafted Argument. Cengage Learning, 2013.
Margaret Atwood supposes that in the future there will be pig farms dedicated to raising genetically modified pigs capable of producing organs for transplantation into humans. It is based upon pure speculation. Atwood offers this work as a pure piece of science fiction and as such does not include any concrete scientific backing at all.
Atwood is writing fiction about a dystopian future society and projecting the potential for abuse of bioengineering to one of its ultimate possible conclusions. That of maintaining a bioengineered pig farm used to grow human body parts. In this the argument could be made that, as a work of pure fiction it does not belong in a serious discussion on the topic of bioengineering. Scientifically founded or not it still does serve to illustrate the ethics involved in bioengineering and in this instance has its place among the more scientific and scholarly writings.
Ault, A. (2002, 09). Bioengineered Animals Termed Major Environmental Threat. Retrieved from Rense.Com: http://rense.com/general29/BIO.HTM
The environment threat created by the possibility of the escape of genetically engineered animals was addressed in an article by Alicia Ault and published in a report by a National Academy of Sciences committee in 2002. The article reporting on the committee’s finding was reported on Reuter Health as determining that the risk of GMOs escaping and displacing wild species was great. However, at the same time they felt there was no concern that these GMOs were not safe for human consumption outside of an increased risk of allergies.
This conservative evaluation is not one shared by the general public and brings to focus how broadly divisive this topic can be.
Balbyshev, Nikaley. "Priorities of Gene Therapy." White, Fred D and Simone J Billings. The Well Crafted Argument. Cengage Learning, 2013.
Nikaley Balbyshev, was a student at North Dakota University at the time he wrote on the topic of the priorities of gene therapy. In this essay he address the problem researchers face when, confronted with a lack of genetic mater and funding they must decide on the direction of their funding. His writing is well sourced with ample scholarly resources to back up his facts.
In this writing Balbyshev pushes the ethical concerns of the research scientists to extremes. He expresses the opinion that different diseases, and different potential victims deserve greater consideration than others. Since the Government provides a great deal of the resources needed they are able to strongly influence the direction of medical research and set its priorities. In his words regarding the situation and the choice on funding “it sounds like the Government tells these people ‘you will have to wait’.”
Caplan, Arthur. "Bioengineering and Self-Improvement." White, Fred D and Simone J Billings. The Well-Crafted Argument. Cengage Learning, 2013.
Bioengineering and Self-Improvement by Arthur Caplan is an opinion piece that does not contain any back up research; instead it relies upon the writer’s personal observations and opinions. Although they seem sound and valid there are no back up research to corroborate his understandings and observations.
Caplan approaches the topic of bioengineering by looking at elective surgery and separating it into two categories, cosmetic surgery and that use to improve function such as eye surgery. His initial inspiration for writing is seeing an advertisement in a shopping mall promising that patients might immediately be able to enjoy better than 20/20 vision after undergoing surgery. Since he believes that very few people have 20/20 vision he feels like this surgery is not just remedial, it gives a functional advantage to people who select to have this operation performed. In this manner he likens it to cosmetic surgery that bequeaths an esthetic advantage.
Chu, L.-H., & Chen, B.-S. (2008, 6 30). Construction of a cancer-perturbed protein-protein interaction network for discovery of apoptosis drug targets. Retrieved 2 11, 2012, from PubMedCentral: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2488323/?tool=pmcentrez
On a large scale “Frankenfish” are an environmental concern. However, a microscopic cold virus created to target cancer cells could prove an even deadlier problem if it mutates and is released. Researchers like Chu and Chen are developing a virus based upon the common cold virus that will target the protein to protein interface bonds between cancer cells, destroy the tumor then search out any cancer cells that have metastasized in the body destroying them as well. The present problem is the human body’s ability to destroy the virus cells before they have an opportunity to kill the cancer. However, there is also the concern that a resistant strain of virus could mutate and spread out to the general public.
This is very valid research that shows both the value and the dangers inherent in the bioengineering of medically effective treatments.
Chrichton, Michael. "Patenting Life." White, Fred D and Simone J Billings. The Well Crafted Argument. Cengage Learning, 2013.
Michael Chrichton does not cite any experts in his opinion piece Patenting Life. However, with his impressive educational credits as a graduate of Harvard Medical and a postdoctoral fellow at the Salk Institute he is well qualified to serve as an expert. He balances the rights of the researchers who invest the time and effort to study and own the results of their hard work against the importance of making this information available to save lives. Bringing to light the full reality of this he elucidates the point that we no longer have the right to donate our own cells to further research if someone has patented the gene pattern.
Chrichton’s argument is lucid and starts with the premise that the original, precedent patent should never have been granted to begin with; it was all a misinterpretation of prior Supreme Court rulings. In his quite sensible opinion it should be impossible for someone to own a gene that is present in another person’s body. In addition, this gene ownership halts research, presents medical testing and puts people in a position that they cannot even access information about their own bodies without another person’s consent, and that consent could be unilaterally withheld. Additionally, if a patient undergoes a test, the patent holder has not only the rights to the test results but also to the tissue tested and can do research on it without the patient’s knowledge or consent. Unlike other countries that do not permit gene patenting, people in America have no legal recourse to block this or even recover their own cells.
Coverly, David. "Political Science/Politicized Science." White, Fred D and Simone J Billings. The Well Crafted Argument. Cengage Learning, 2013.
David Coverly’s contribution to the subject is a satiric political cartoon. As such there is no research, or apology, offered. The sole supporting argument is that if it made you smile you understood the truth behind it to some degree. While this is not an item that would stand up to scientific peer review, it does inspire consideration.
In the cartoon a shopper is looking a shelves of books, the sign above one section reads “Political Science.” The sign above the section the shopper is focused upon reads “Politicized Science.” On those shelves are books entitled Stem Cell Research, The Morning After Pill, Global Warming and Air Quality. Without any additional words it brings to mind how much control the Government can exert influence upon what research get funded, or even is legally permissible.
Donahue, S.J, John W. "The Stem Cell Debate." White, Fred D and Simone J Billings. The Well Crafted Argument. Cengage Learning, 2013.
John Donahue take on one of the most divisive issue facing our scientific community today, that of stem cell research. This is not just an ethical question; to many it is a religious anathema as well. There are people who feel that the embryos that are destroyed in order to harvest stem cells are human beings and therefore sacred. On the other extreme there are people who believe that, since these embryos have no possibility for survival it is sinful not to use the cells to possibly save other innocent lives. Although there are no sources cited at the end of the article, there are interior quotes that identify individuals with varying options on this topic.
Considering the emotional reactions to this ethical question it is difficult to address it fully without breaching the limits of logical discourse and enter into the realm of purely passionate exchange. Donahue does a fair job of presenting both sides of this controversy without slipping into rhetoric on either side, and there are slippery slopes in both directions.
Editors of Scientific American. "The Need to Regulate "Designer Babies"." White, Fred D and Simone J Billings. The Well Crafted Argument. Cengage Learning, 2013.
Designer Babies can be considered to be anything from selected the strongest embryos to be implanted in the womb of a woman who otherwise would not bear children to actually selecting traits for an embryo. There are passionate arguments to be made on both sides, and the Editors of the Scientific American explore both sides and look into several aspects on how genetic research can be used, and abused to influence what babies are given the opportunity to live.
The Editors of the Scientific American advocate for legislation, and suggest that the United States look at the U.K.’s HFEA legislature for potential guidelines in enacting their own.
George, Robert P. "Ethics, Politics, and Genetic Knowledge." White, Fred D and Simone J Billings. The Well Crafted Argument. Cengage Learning, 2013.
Robert P. George takes on the issues of Ethics, Politics and Genetic Knowledge when he deals with the potential complications that can arise regarding the potential for disorders and disease based upon their genetics. In this he calls for legal consideration to be given to protect individuals who choose to have testing done that will determine the risk factor for certain health problems in their unborn children. In doing this he looks art everything from “designer babies’ to eugenics.
George is a flamboyant writer who speaks of “the glory of our political tradition” that gives due concern to all but also concludes that the moral issues are clear and that reverence for life must be honored.
Hard, B. C., & Higgins, J. P. (2012). Bioremediation of Acid Rock Drainage Using Sulphate-Reducing Bacteria. Retrieved, from Laurentian Library: http://pdf.library.laurentian.ca/medb/conf/Sudbury03/Bacteria/66.pdf
Specially manipulated organisms are not limited to the realm of food and medicine. There is a host of bacteria, algae and other organisms being created to deal with ongoing environmental problems as well. This is the subject of the research being done by Hard and Higgins in their attempt to mitigate the damages caused by the acid rock produced by mineral exploitation companies.
Their work is valuable and relevant to the bio ethics issue in that it illustrates how biological solutions are being sought to remediate the damages caused to the environment by the general exploitation done while extracting valuable substances.
Idikio, H. A. (2011, 2 22). Human Cancer Classification: A Systems Biology- Based Model Integrating Morphology, Cancer Stem Cells, Proteomics, and Genomics. Retrieved from PubMed Central: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3072616/?tool=pmcentrez
H.A. Idikio is research scientist who is investigating the medical treatment for disease on the genetic and cellular level. This research is conducted on an extremely exacting basis and is founded in the strongest possible standards.
This paper is relevant to the issue of the ethics of bio research because it is bio research. This is the kind of solid work that is being conducted and that the media, politicians and everyone else is commenting on.
Sakko, Kerryn. "The Debate Over Genetically Modified Foods." White, Fred D. The Well Crafted Argument. Cengage learning, n.d.
Kerryn Sakko calls for caution in proceeding with the widespread growth and use of genetically modified food crops in her well researched article. Noting there a many potential concerns from runaway crops that cross pollinate with other plants to the potential for GMOs to trigger unforeseen reactions such as allergies in persons ingesting them.
Sakko presents a considered and reasonable viewpoint to a hard to approach topic. Because it covers a range of possibilities, and has the documentation to support it this article is a valuable tool for looking at the GMO food situation.
Unknown. (20013). Superfish Is Here: Is This Super Good or Super Bad? Retrieved from Dive Training: http://www.dtmag.com/Stories/Marine%20Life/05-01-eco_seas.htm
Unknown presents a speculative viewpoint that is none the less valid and researched from reliable sources such as the Center for Food Safety. Union of Concerned Scientists and the Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution, Division of Aquaculture
Volsen, P. (20010, 10 07). Modified-Salmon Fight Showcases Risks, Rewards of Engineering Wild Species. Retrieved from New York Times: http://www.nytimes.com/gwire/2010/10/07/07greenwire-modified-salmon-fight-showcases-risks-rewards-o-2072.html?pagewanted=all
Paul Volson, writing for the New York Times leads out his article on modified-salmon with an example of how genetically engineered bentgrass has excaped from a field trial and become a common wild grass that competes with the native wild grasses like rabbit’s foot and water bent.
This is an extremely relevant article as it refutes the claim that there is no chance of GMOs escaping their confinement. Not only might they in the future, they have already done so in the past.
Weiss, K. R. (2003, 05 14). Franken fish - L.A. Times 05-14-03: bioengineered fish (glowing fish). Retrieved from Vegieboards re-posted from the L.A. Times: http://www.veggieboards.com/t/2726/frankenfish-l-a-times-05-14-03-bioengineered-fish-glowing-fish
When Weiss reported on bioengineered “Franken fish” in May of 2003 they were a reality, but not one that was ready for marketing. Ten years later in 2013 they are, and that is something that is causing a great deal of concern among researchers and laymen. The research in this article consists of interviews with individuals who have vested concern in this regard. However, they were considered experts at the time the article was written.
This article is a valid source of background information to set out the history of larger animals who pose an ever greater threat of cross breeding with native populations, or of eliminating them entirely.
Discussion:
Bio-engineering, and manipulation from DNA mapping through cosmetic surgical intervention has been an ongoing source of concern for decades as can be seen in David Coverly’s "Political Science/Politicized Science" cartoon not only do people want to be able to make their own choices, they range in opinion from the need to protect themselves and the environment from the potential dangers to whole hearted embracing the culture because of its potential benefits. Most people have thoughts that range across the board that can be seen in the wide range of writing that has been done on the subject.
Someone who has strong religious beliefs to the contrary may oppose stem cell research while others embrace it and the lives it could save . In that line the potential to bio-engineer “designer babies” and practice euthanasia on others is more generally seen as abhorrent; elective surgery to enhance eyesight or even for simple cosmetic appeal is widely accepted in America and most developed nations. .
One important range of study is the medicinal uses of bio technology. This field of study calls to mind the many ways bioresearch can be used for profit, , to benefit human kind, and the fear of how terribly wrong it could go . One area of special concern is that of GMO crops and animals. There are already escaped GMO plants that have infiltrated the natural environment and are now competing with native plants. . However AquaBounty’s announcement that it would begin marketing its GMO salmon in Canada has raised a new round of concern. AquaBounty is nearing FDA approval of a fast-growing salmon, which will be the first genetically engineered animal product for sale to the public. In the course of time the effects of bioengineered salmon will start to be known. (Volsen, 20010) We will know if they can survive in the wild, if they escape at some point. We will know if they are able to breed true to their man-made type, or if they can breed at all. We’ll know if they can mate with natural species, and whose genes are stronger. We’ll know if they are a healthy source of food for humans, or if they promote or aggravate cancer, allergies, or any health issues in between. (Volsen, 20010), (Weiss, 2003) (Unknown, 20013). We don’t know yet what effect eating GMOs has on human health, but a committee of scientists reported that it had "a moderate level of concern" about allergic reactions. For example, “if a shellfish gene were implanted into a fish, could a person allergic to shellfish have a reaction to it?” .
The features that they are being engineered for are faster growth with less food, year-round production of growth hormone to maintain growth through the colder seasons, and greater cold resistance. (AquaBounty, 2013). The faster growth could allow them to out-compete natural populations. They will reach sexual maturity faster. This will allow them to breed more generations in less time than natural salmon. If they decide they like the taste of their naturally-bred ancestors, it could wipe out the native populations. (Ault, 2002), (Volsen, 20010), (Weiss, 2003) (Unknown, 20013).
The conventional wisdom is that genetic engineering interferes with life’s ability to flourish in the wild, (Aqua Bounty Technologies Press Release, 2013), but faster growth rates and greater cold resistance could give the new species an advantage over the natural fish. (Weiss, 2003). Due to their unique biology, fish in general and salmon in particular are easier to sterilize than many other animals and plants. But it is not an exact consistently flawless process, life’s imperative is to perpetuate itself, and it often finds a way around our best efforts to contain it.
Conclusion:
The techniques for creating these new transgenic fish are being developed much faster than food-safety and environmental protection laws and regulations can keep up. Yet aquaculture factory style fish farms and the corporations who are responsible for developing the GMO fish are pressing for these creatures to be bred and offered for public consumption. The new salmon represent potentially huge profits if they are approved by the FDA. . The main concern of the National Academy of Sciences committee is regarding the environmental damage if the transgenic animals enter the wild populations. “It is possible that if transgenic salmon with genes engineered to accelerate growth were released into the natural environment, they could compete more successfully for food and mates than wild salmon," said the Academy panel. That could mean that the “Franken fish” might eradicate the native populations by crossbreeding or by eating them. . It is difficult to prove a negative, but considering the past failures to contain plants that are rooted in place it seems a legitimate concern that bioengineering living organisms poses a special concern in their potential escape and and create unforeseen problems.
Works Cited
Aqua Bounty Technologies Press Release. (2013, 11 25). AquaBounty Cleared To Produce Salmon Eggs In Canada For Commercial Purposes . Retrieved from The Wall Street Journal: http://online.wsj.com/article/PR-CO-20131125-903183.html
AquaBounty. (2013). AquAdvantage® Fish. Retrieved from AquaBounty: http://www.aquabounty.com/products/products-295.aspx
AquaBounty. (2013). Our mission. Retrieved from AquaBounty: http://www.aquabounty.com/
Atwood, M. (2013). Organinc Farms. In F. D. White, & S. J. Billings, The Well Crafted Argument (pp. 716 - 720). Cengage Learning.
Ault, A. (2002, 09). Bioengineered Animals Termed Major Environmental Threat. Retrieved from Rense.Com: http://rense.com/general29/BIO.HTM
Balbyshev, N. (2013). Priorities of Gene Therapy. In F. D. White, & S. J. Billings, The Well Crafted Argument (pp. 721 - 727). Cengage Learning.
Caplan, A. (2013). Bioengineering and Self-Improvement. In F. D. White, & S. J. Billings, The Well-Crafted Argument. 693 - 696: Cengage Learning.
Chrichton, M. (2013). Patenting Life. In F. D. White, & S. J. Billings, The Well Crafted Argument (pp. 706 - 708). Cengage Learning.
Chu, L.-H., & Chen, B.-S. (2008, 6 30). Construction of a cancer-perturbed protein-protein interaction network for discovery of apoptosis drug targets. Retrieved from PubMedCentral: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2488323/?tool=pmcentrez
Coverly, D. (2013). Political Science/Politized Science. In F. D. White, & S. J. Billings, The Well Crafted Argument (p. 892). Cengage Learning.
Donahue, S. J. (2013). The Stem Cell Debate. In F. D. White, & S. J. Billings, The Well Crafted Argument (pp. 700 - 703). Cengage Learning.
Editors of Scientific American. (2013). The Need to Regulate "Designer Babies". In F. D. White, & S. J. Billings, The Well Crafted Argument (pp. 703 -705). Cengage Learning.
George, R. P. (2013). Ethics, Politics, and Genetic Knowlege. In F. D. White, & S. J. Billings, The Well Crafted Argument (pp. 697 - 700). Cengage Learning.
Hard, B. C., & Higgins, J. P. (2012). Bioremediation of Acid Rock Drainage Using Sulphate-Reducing Bacteria. Retrieved from Laurentian Library: http://pdf.library.laurentian.ca/medb/conf/Sudbury03/Bacteria/66.pdf
Idikio, H. A. (n.d.). Human Cancer Classification: A Systems Biology- Based Model Integrating Morphology, Cancer Stem Cells, Proteomics, and Genomics. Retrieved from PubMed Central: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3072616/?tool=pmcentrez
Sakko, K. (n.d.). The Debate Over Genetically Modified Foods. In F. D. White, & S. J. Billings, The Well Crafted Argument (pp. 708 - 715). Cengage learning.
Unknown. (20013). Superfish Is Here: Is This Super Good or Super Bad? Retrieved from Dive Training: http://www.dtmag.com/Stories/Marine%20Life/05-01-eco_seas.htm
Volsen, P. (20010, 10 07). Modified-Salmon Fight Showcases Risks, Rewards of Engineering Wild Species. Retrieved from New York Times: http://www.nytimes.com/gwire/2010/10/07/07greenwire-modified-salmon-fight-showcases-risks-rewards-o-2072.html?pagewanted=all
Weiss, K. R. (2003, 05 14). Frankenfish - L.A. Times 05-14-03: bioengineered fish(glowing fish). Retrieved from Vegieboards re-posted from the L.A. Times: http://www.veggieboards.com/t/2726/frankenfish-l-a-times-05-14-03-bioengineered-fish-glowing-fish
