William G. Perry: Forms of Intellectual and Ethical Development in the College Years
Perry conducts research on college age students and sets forth their intellectual and ethical development through nine positions. Position One is designated as Basic Duality. At this stage, the student places knowledge into two categories: the “in-group” and the “outgroup” (Diessner, 2008). According to Perry, position one has the following attributes: Within the in group are things familiar: truths that concern obedience. The student develops knowledge through committing items to memory and obeying Authority. The out group consists of things unknown or alien to the student. This set of knowledge is considered illegitimate and wrong. The student sees no other knowledge except that of the in group which is provided to them by teachers. There is no gray area of knowledge. The second stage is the Multiplicity Pre-Legitimate position. At this stage, the student processes through an adolescent revolt against heterogeneity. Perry claims that opposition against authority is followed by personal individuation in this position. Also, the student begins to perceive diversity and complexity. Multiplicity Subordinate is the third position. The student recognizes the existence of “legitimate human uncertainty” (Diessner, 2008). Perry explains that the student also at this point in position four separates Authority and Absolutism and recognizes that “everyone has a right to his own opinion” (Diessner, 2008). Position five is Relativist Correlate, Competing or Diffuse wherein a dramatic revolution occurs. In this position, according to Perry, the student appears to have reached an understanding of relativism as well as dualism. The previous view of the world has been transformed. Position six is Commitment Foreseen where the student achieves a sense of identity. The following positions 7, 8, and 9 revolve around commitment. Initial commitment, orientation of commitment and developing commitment.
James E. Marcia: Development and Validation of Ego-Identity Status
Marcia’s study presents research concerning the “hypothesized psychosocial crisis” that occurs in late adolescence. Marcia sets forth four profiles of ego identity stages that could be present in an individual in late adolescence. These stages include the identity achievement stage, moratorium stage, the foreclosure stage, and the identity diffusion stage. In his study, he presented four hypothesis concerning ego identity as it relates to stress, aspiration, submission, and esteem level. Marcia also evaluates the relationship between different ego identities. Using two measurements, an interview and an incomplete sentence test, the results revealed the existence of different ego stages. The identify achievement stage occurs with individuals having and independent ego identity. They handle stress and problems well and have a certain level of aspiration.
The Moratorium stage of ego identity has many similarities to the identify achievement stage except the for differences in the concept attainment task. The Foreclosure stage of ego identity reflects an individual with vulnerable self-esteem but with high obedience, respect for authority and strong leadership skills. The last stage, the identity diffusion stage is an individual in between the other stages, not reflecting high or low on task results. Overall, the study results conformed to the hypothesis set by Marcia. Self-esteem and ego identity are highly correlated while high ego identity correlates to high self-esteem as well as an ability to set goals and handle stress. The point of Marcia’s study was to identify the different ego identity stages and the characteristics of each in order to better understand development in late adolescence.
Abraham H. Maslow: Self-Actualizing People: A Study of Psychological Health
Maslow endeavored to obtain the top one percent of college students to participate in his study which included individuals without psychological issues like neurosis, psychosis or psychopathic personality and with a positive self-actualization. Maslow indicated that it was difficult to find individuals to take part in his study as he had to analyze whether they met the criteria of a self-actualized individual. Two of the individuals Maslow used were historical figures: Abraham Lincoln and Thomas Jefferson.
Maslow explains that individuals progress from basic needs to social needs to the highest need which is self-actualization. Self-actualization is defined as the ability to use and exploit one’s own talent, capacity and potential. These individuals are becoming what they are capable of becoming. Maslow found that the characteristics of self-actualizing individuals include reality perception, acceptance, spontaneity, problem centering, solitude, autonomy, appreciation, experience, kinship, humility, respect, interpersonal relationships, ethics, humor, creativity, imperfections, values and more. More specifically, according to Maslow, a self-actualized individual can effectively judge people, has a high level of acceptance, are spontaneous, are strong problem solvers, and have the ability to be alone. These individuals are also independent, appreciative, sympathetic, humble, respectful, and democratic. They have mystical experiences with orgasm, as well as deep and profound personal relationships. They are not vain or prideful, or superficial. However, they may be boring, stubborn or irritating. Maslow claims that self-actualized people are very strong individuals and are clear about what is right and wrong, as well as firm about their value system. The self-actualized individual accepts the nature of self.
Roger Gould: Adult Life Stages: Growth Toward Self-Tolerance
Gould conducted a study wherein he identified life stages for adults, claiming that mental development continues through adulthood. Gould proclaims that tolerance and appreciation are key attributes at each stage. Gould identified seven phases of adulthood by age ranges. These include 16 years to 17 years, 18 years to 21 years, 22 years to 28 years, 29 years to 36 years, 37 years to 43 years, 44 years to 50 years, and 51 years to 60 years, each have its own distinct characteristics.
Gould discovered that the 16 to 17 years olds were similar to the 18 to 21-year-old as family oriented. However, the 22 to 28 year olds are more unique in that they are open minded and more liberal. Those between ages 29 and 36 focus on family and children. At this age, psychological change is also occurring. At ages 37 to 43, individuals have a lower level of personal and marital comfort. Friends and family become more important while money becomes less important. For 45 to 50 year olds, life seems to settle down and acceptance is high. Finally, at the 51 to 60 age, stability is marked with concern about time. According to Gould, these individuals are more pessimistic and have more concerns about health.
Gould concludes with mentioning that these stages are generalizations but that adults continue to develop and grow rather than simply age. The adult realizes new beliefs about him or herself and about the world according to Gould. Resolution is more probable while conflict recedes. Rather than concluding that individuals no longer develop after childhood and adolescence, Maslow attempts to clarify that development occurs through each stage of life.
Erik Erikson: Reflections on the Last Stage – And the First
Erikson presented a theory of eight stages of human development. In this essay, the first and last stage are studied. He evaluates the hope of the first stage with the wisdom of the last stage. In each stage of human development, Erikson claims that there is both a syntonic and dystonic quality. In the last stage, for instance, it is Despair and Integrity, while in the first stage there is Mistrust and Trust. In each stage, there is a conflict. However, at each stage of development, the syntonic qualities should be dominant.
Erikson explains in detail the chart he created to explain the stages. In each corner of the chart is a term and concept. He presents the reader with an explanation as to why he has placed each term specifically in each corner of the chart and how they are related to the stages. This seems to be a bit complicated, but Erikson is simply trying to show how the stages are interrelated.
In discussing the first and last stages together. Erikson explains that hope in the first stage is needed to create trust and begin life. However, despair in the final stage as well as wisdom and integrity seem inappropriate. Erikson explains that those who created these stages and assigned the traits to each stage may not have been actually capable of assigning traits to the last stage as they have not yet themselves experience it.
Elisabeth Kubler-Ross: On Death and Dying
Ross discusses the stages of dying. The first stage is denial and isolation. When an individual is told that he or she is dying, the initial reaction is denial. This reaction is typical for all patients. Denial, explains Ross, acts as a buffer and allows the patient to contemplate the situation. Denial is also temporary and may, sometimes, include a period of isolation. The second stage of dying is anger. Anger is a human nature reaction to traumatic information. Ross claims that anger is often misplaced by the patients as it is directed randomly at others. However, anger can be understood as the individual sees all the things of life ending. The third stage is bargaining. In this stage, the patient attempts to postpone the inevitable by bargaining for an extension of life. There are many different types of agreements the patient makes with themselves or with their God. The fourth stage is depression. Denial and anger are no longer assisting the patient in his or her process and the inevitable must be faced. There may also be issues that arise to contribute to the patient’s depression like loss of financial security or loss of a job.
Ross explains that there are two types of depression that a patient may experience at this stage. There is a reactive depression wherein the patient is feeling grief, and guilt or shame. The other is preparatory depression. This type of depression views the impending loss, which is different than reactive which views what already has been lost. The fifth and final stage is acceptance. At this stage, explains Ross, the patient’s depression and anger are gone. The patients experience peace. This stage is often more difficult for the family of the dying patient than it is for the patient. The patient, at this stage, is content with where he or she is at and typically sleeps a lot and prefers little interruption.
References
Diessner, R. (2008). Classic Edition Sources: Human Development. Dubuque: McGraw-Hill.
