Introduction
Cancer is a chronic disease in which there is out of control growth of cells. There are over hundred types of cancer, and each type is distinct with the rest in the sense that particular human cells are affected initially.Breast cancer affects the breast tissues, mostly the inner lining of the ducts or lobules supplying milk to ducts (Cedolini et al. 2014). Cancers having their origin in ducts are called duct carcinomas and those having their origin in lobules are referred as lobular carcinomas. Breast cancer is commonly prevailing and alarmingly high incidences of this disease in women all over the world (Wu et al. 2014). The disease is characterized by multiplication of cells uncontrollably, and can affect the rest of the body parts through a process called metastasises and warrants some social adjustments to survive (Fann et al. 2008).
Epidemiological aspects of the disease revealed that occurrence and resultant mortalities due to breast cancer is constantly increasing and have been attributed to genetic dispositions, healthcare facilities, and social reactions (Chiu et al. 2006). Statistics data will be evaluated with epidemiological aspect for the period of 2004-2014.Thus, this paper focuses on the statistics of breast cancer epidemiologically, dwells on the sociological aspect aggravating the situation, and explores sociological theories that can explain the prevalence of the health condition / disease. The essay also investigates some strategies which may help to reduce breast cancer and its effects.
Epidemiological statistics of breast cancer in Australia
Breast cancer is the most frequent and prevalent cancer in Australian women. The number of Australian women suffering from confirmed breast cancer of breast carcinoma type is around 15000 which account for 27% of all carcinoma cases. On the other hand, males suffering from breast cancer were around 113 (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, Cancer, Australia, 2012).The statistics further revealed that 88% of the women afflicted with breast cancer have survival chances for around five years or more. This is because of the improved technological accomplishments in the treatment of this disease, social education about it and women empowerment movements in the societies (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, Cancer, Australia, 2012).
The case studies revealed that different types of cancer are an increase among Australian including breast cancer, melanomas and lungs cancer. The Table 1 illustrates the much higher incidence of breast cancer in comparison to other types of cancer.
Adopted from Australian Institute of Health and welfare (2009: 5-16)
Moreover, the breast cancer is class specific and economically affluent class women are more prone of incurring it. The contention seems to be incongruous because affluent class is more capable of accessing sophisticated and technologically advanced healthcare facilities. However, it is their exposure to such practices and habits like alcoholism and smoking by the women of higher social strata that make them more susceptible to breast cancer (Wu, et al. 2014).In the year 2015, the recorded cases of breast cancer are likely to increase by 22%, and the majority of those afflicted will be aboriginal women because of their societal practices as their habits of eating, lack of disease control measures, and the dearth of management initiatives. Another alarming feature of the study is the prospect of men being afflicted with breast cancer disease. Statistics showed that male are also prone to breast cancer yet the probability of incidence is significantly low comparative to female. The analysis of prevalence of breast cancer among male and female is presented in Table 2.This shows that 438 males and 57327 female were reported during the period of 2004-2008 (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, Cancer, Australia, 2012) which reflect that only 0.8% of males suffered from this chronic disease in contrast to females. In addition, in the context of age, incidence reported among female was 15449 while male accounted 128 having age between 60-69 years and it is drastically higher than females having ratio of 120:1.
Source adopted: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, Cancer, Australia (2012, p.62-64)
Moreover, according to the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (2009, p.23) almost 9% women in Australia carries the risk of getting afflicted with breast carcinoma. However, this probability figure increases with an increase in age of women. Majority of the cases having this disease are diagnosed after women are past 50 years of age. Some other factors impacting the incidence of breast cancer are level of exposure to occupational risks, and access to effective and quality healthcare facilities. At the age of 75 years, 9% (1:11) and at 85, almost 11% (1:9) as presented Table 3.Australian women are detected to have been suffering from breast cancer. In the future, the incidence of this disease is likely to increase due to an increase in the populace of aged people in the nation. The most of the women get afflicted with this fatal disease after their menopausal period, and consequently, the birth rate is not affected (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2009, p.23).
Adopted from the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (2009, p.23)
Studies conducted in Australia with respect to epidemiology of breast cancer revealed continuously increasing trends so far as deaths are concerned due to this type of cancer (National Breast and Ovarian Cancer Centre, 2011). Statistics available showed the death of 2680 women against 26 deaths of male in the year 2007 in Australia. Within a span of 25 years up to 2007, the mortality cases decreased substantially from one in every 37 to one in every 27 at an average age of 85 years (National Breast and Ovarian Cancer Centre, 2011). It was possible due to early detection, management, and treatment of the disease along with extensive education about feminism, increased societal care, enhanced availability of basic amenities, and reduced social alienation of the patient. The 23.7% death rate of the native inhabitants was considerably higher than that of repatriates and other settlers that were 22.8% in comparison (National Breast and Ovarian Cancer Centre, 2011). If these statistics are compared with that of European and African regions, the incidence of breast cancer in Australia is lower, but even then available statistics showed estimated cases of 14610,14940 and 15270 in 2012,2013 and 2014 respectively (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, Cancer, Australia, 2012). However, concerns for health and societal practices in Australia still persist. Figure 1 shows that the occurrence of breast cancer cases in some regions of Australia like Victoria, South Wales, and Queensland is quite high in comparison to the Northern regions. The reasons for this regional imbalance in the incidence of this disease include exposure to high risks due to alienation in labor and anomalies in the standard of living of the different strata of the women in those regions. The reasons behind this trend include several societal issues like illiteracy, faulty eating habits, not availing medical treatment facilities in time, and poor awareness about the disease.
Figure 1: Distribution of breast cancer cases in different regions
However, the survival after the detection has increased significantly. The studies revealed an increase of around 15% in the survival during five years period of 2001-2006, and this could be attributed to better control measures in terms of awareness campaigns and other societal issues against breast cancer. However, this survival is dependent on the size of the tumour which being of miniature size is easily exercised, but larger ones require specialized and complicated treatment (Wu, S. et al. 2014). In the year 2006, the rate of survival of women with sizes of tumours 0-10, 11-15, 16-19, 20-29, and 30 millimetres or more have been 98.2%, 94.7%, 93%, 87.9%, and 73.1% respectively, Figure 2 presents statistics of contentions based on age group. (National Breast and Ovarian Cancer Centre: 2011).
Figure 2: Breast cancer incidence based on age group for year 2006
Adopted from the Breast Cancer Network of Australia (2011)
Socio-economic factors have been analysed to examine and evaluate the age wise cases of breast cancer, and the effect of screening on it (Erbas, Hyndman, & Gertig, 2007). The area of concern is the effects of social, demographic anomalies on the survival pattern of women afflicted with this disease. The empowerment of society, early diagnosis, and reduced exposure to risks as measures are of significant concern (Hoffman et al. 2013).Thus, analysis of incidences of breast cancer from the epidemiological point of view reveals that economic, as well as social determinants of health have a bearing on the incidence of this disease. Hence, it is important to examine this disease from the sociological viewpoint (Youlden et al. 2012).
Sociological perspective of breast cancer
A critical analysis of breast cancer in terms of its incidences, rate of survival, and rate of death point a link between this disease and societal issues, gender, social practices, economic strata, and geographical habitat of women. An effort has been made to categorize women into different economic and social strata to examine the issue of breast cancer, and its mitigation in terms of reduced occurrence and resultant death (Chafetz, 1997). This contention focuses on equality of women, their empowerment and enlightenment in terms of education, healthcare, and socio-political status. It is of no use considering them susceptible to this disease, more than men. Socio-economic factors can be attributed by viewpoint of feminist and Marxian Theory of Alienation.
Feminist Theory
The feminist theory takes into account the male dominance in the fields of childbirth, family planning, and liberalism. There being women worsens the situation as they become more vulnerable to this disease. Hence, the theory seeks to focus on social reconstruction so that women could be empowered to such levels that they become aware of their rights and fight for emancipation (Fann et al. 2008).The viewpoint of feminist theory also deals with issues related to women, so it is natural to discuss breast cancer that accounts for the majority of deaths of women due to carcinomas. The myth of feminism lies in engagement of the epidemiological studies and such policies that expose domination based on gender, region and social status as part of the life. In section-1, epidemiology study has been conducted based on gender, regions, and social status which revealed that females are more prone to breast cancer comparative to males. Moreover, the people living in remote areas of Australia have lesser access to proper and timely treatment. Thus, feminism theory supports our data analyses conducted in section-1 as breast cancer afflicted women are 120% more than men. Hence; it is a woman issue predominantly. In addition, prevalence of breast cancer among people living in capital and territory area is remarkably lower than the population of remote areas as New South Wales. As per the analysis epidemiologically, the low socio-economic standing of the women, the level of their literacy, and the place of their origin augment breast cancer (Fann et al. 2008). According to the advocates of women’s equality with men, their empowerment can only control the ever increasing trend of this disease. It is due to neglect of feminism that society does not take proper care of women, and it results in late detection and premature deaths. The disease also leads to certain disabilities like breast excision, and negative feelings due to social neglect as the society still pursue anti-feminism (Fann et al. 2008; Hoffman, et al. 2013). These have led to the emergence of radical viewpoint in the context of feminism, and women have of opinion to start a movement to get their legitimate rights. Of course, they deserve better attention and care so that there could be early detection, improved methods of screening, and reducing the causative factors of breast cancer. The breast cancer as an issue of women's emancipation has been extensively delineated in several literary creations of health professionals and self-help groups of women. These creations deal with strategic approaches as these are the only methods to deal the growing menace of breast cancer effectively. These approaches can lead to the formulation of better screening systems, treatment, and management (Stankov, 2011). This theory, thus, helps understand breast cancer, and related societal issues that women afflicted with this disease have to address and adjust.
Despite no plausible explanation for such a high rate of cancer incidence in women, none can deny that women bear a huge social, economic, and even religious burden. Due to this fact, feminism also takes into account the epidemiological statistics about a large number of women getting afflicted with this disease and dying premature in comparison to a few such incidences in men (Traa et al. 2011). Reluctance to the avail quality and prescribed healthcare facilities due to sheer ignorance and illiteracy has led to increase in incidences and consequent mortalities in women. However, the situation has improved with movement for women’s rights picking up, extensive education on treatment and early detection of tumour by screening. Thus, feminism theory seems to be the answer to the increasing breast cancer cases in women as they bear the brunt of social burden, and have no say in child bearing activities in the male dominated society.
Marxian Theory of Alienation
This disease can also be examined in the context of Marxian Theory of Alienation, which refers to human relations that are not under the control of the participating members, and the consequences thereof (Stankov, 2011). These relations look apparently like separating things that are essentially of the same group. Also, these relations exhibit things as antagonistic but are in proper harmony. Theoretically speaking, the theory of alienation explains the people's social estrangement from the different facets of human nature as a result of the stratification of the society into social classes based on economic accomplishments. As per Crinson and Yulli (2008,), the estrangement in society is the outcome of capitalism giving rise to different types of human natures and humanity. This alienation is palpable in the case of working class that loses control over their labour to capitalists, and this phenomenon has a bearing on the health aspects of the workers. Shuster (2008) opined that the present theory emphasizes these very sentiments that are connected with the occurrence of breast cancer.
This Marxian theory of alienation correlates breast cancer from the stratification of labor. Estrangement brings loneliness and non-communication resulting in non-sharing of feelings that in turn leads to deprivation of proper suggestion (Bramann, n.d.). This paper discussed health inequalities in materialism and historical context in section-1 and sets out argument to support Marxian theory of alienation. Alienation also facilitates exposition to radiation and lack of guarantee of healthcare, and faulty eating habits that may increase 22% by the year 2015. Wilkinson, Merrifield and Elster also supported that Marx had analyzed human suffering and inequalities in capitalist society (Crinson and Yuill, 2008).The capitalistic outlook, in order to maximize profits ignores the health aspect of employees who thus, become vulnerable to diseases like breast cancer (Janet, 2005). The theory contends that women spend their time working for the benefit of their families without paying regard to the prevailing bad working conditions that is one of the consequences breast cancer developments, and that is referred as occupation health related cancer (European Commission, 2006, p.23).
Discrepancies arise out due to stratification of society in the sense that women belonging to some sections of society are less prone to breast cancer and resultant death due to their easy access to medical amenities and matured lifestyle. The affluent class women due to their unorganized eating habits leading to obesity, alcoholism, and use of drugs are more prone to breast cancer than women of low social strata as they cannot afford such luxuries (Hoffman, et al. 2013). Thus, it is the societal trends, and exposure to risks due to the nature of work that directly influence incidences, prevalence, and mortality of breast cancer (Stankov, 2011). The epidemiological studies corroborated alienation when these revealed increased number of cases of breast cancer in women comparative to men although both are humans. Hence, for women there are some societal aspects that are diametrically different from that of men. Thus, the incidences of breast cancer and consequent deaths being unevenly distributed between men and women point to alienation of women. Further, the development of this disease being affected by women’s indigenousness, and the stratification of society into classes shows alienation responsible for the situation (Gray, 2008, p. 73).
Conclusion
Breast cancer is a great issue of concern in the modern day society due to its devastating effects in the forms of physical and mental sufferings, deaths, and myriad other social and psychological complications. In the first section of this treatise, epidemiological studies with respect to breast cancer in Australia taking into account incidences, mortalities, and survival have been discussed. The findings of the studies reveal difference in the occurrence, prevalence, and resultant mortalities based on age, social class, geographical location, and economic standing (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, Cancer, Australia, 2012). The prevalence of breast cancer incidence among females and males was observed 120:1.The second section of this paper focused the social perspectives that have been dwelt upon in detail. The effect of feminism on breast cancer has been phenomenal. Secondly, breast cancer has been discussed in the context of the Theory of Alienation by Marx. Estrangement of women suffering from this disease gives rise to serious physical and psychological complications. The labor alienation, capitalistic society, male chauvinism, overburdening of women contribute to the development of breast cancer (Crinson & Yulli, 2008; Stankov, 2011).Economic affluence affects the incidence while it facilitates access to improved medical facilities and awareness that prevents the occurrence, luxurious lifestyle interspersed with drug abuse, alcoholism, and faulty food habits are conducive to the development of breast cancer.
Extensive education and uplift of women's conditions on societal front is warranted to minimize the rate of occurrence of breast cancer. It is not gendered specific, but a large majority of sufferers are women. It brings out the disparity between men and women in their social conditions that warrant women empowerment.
References
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2009, ‘Breast cancer in Australia’, Cancer series, Vol. 50, Canberra, Cat. No. CAN 46 pp 1-170, viewed 26 May 2014, <http://www.aihw.gov.au/publication-detail/?id=6442468297>.
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, Cancer, Australia, 2012, Breast cancer in Australia: an overview. Cancer series no.71.Cat.No. CAN 67. Canberra: AIHW.
Bramann, J. (n.d). Marx: Capitalism and Alienation, viewed 2 June 2014, http://faculty.frostburg.edu/phil/forum/Marx.htm
Cedolini, C, Bertozzi, S, Londero, AP, Bernardi, S, Seriau, L, Concina, S & Risaliti, A, 2014, ‘Type of Breast Cancer Diagnosis, Screening, and Survival’, Clinical breast cancer, <http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1526820914000299>.
Chafetz, JS, 1997‘Feminist theory and sociology: Underutilized contributions for mainstream theory’, Annual Review of Sociology, vol. 23. No.1. pp. 97-120, viewed 26 May 2014,
<http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.soc.23.1.97>.
Chiu, C, Morrell, S, Page, A, Rickard, M, Brassil, A & Taylor, R, 2006. ‘Population-based mammography screening and breast cancer incidence in New South Wales, Australia’, Cancer Causes & Control, vol. 17. No. 2.pp. 153-160, viewed 28 May 2014,<http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10552-005-2368-x>.
Crinson, I &Yuill, C, 2008, ‘what can alienation theory contribute to an understanding of social inequalities in health?’ International Journal of Health Services, vol. 38. No. 3. pp. 455-470, viewed May 28, 2014,<http://baywood.metapress.com/app/home/contribution.asp?referrer=parent&backto=issue,5,11;journal,24,174;linkingpublicationresults,1:300313,1>.
Erbas, B, Hyndman, RJ and Gertig, DM, 2007, ‘Forecasting age‐specific breast cancer mortality using functional data models’, Statistics in Medicine, vol. 26. No. 2. pp. 458-470, viewed 25 May 2014, <http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/sim.2306/abstract>.
European Commission. 2006. Literature Review: Health and quality of working life, Annex II: Stress and Stress– Response: An Overview, pp. 22-25.
Fann, JR, Thomas-Rich, AM, Katon, WJ, Cowley, D, Pepping, M, McGregor, BA, &Gralow, J, 2008, ‘Major depression after breast cancer: a review of epidemiology and treatment’, General hospital psychiatry, vol. 30. No.2. pp. 112-126, viewed 29 May 2014,<http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0163834307002204>.
Gray, RE, 1998, ‘Four perspectives on unconventional therapies’, Interdisciplinary Journal for Social Study of Health Illness and Medicine Sage Online Journals, vol. 2. No. 1. pp. 55-74, viewed 26 May 2014, <http://hea.sagepub.com/content/2/1/55.short>.
Hoffman, MA, Lent, RW &Raque-Bogdan, TL, 2013,’A Social Cognitive Perspective on Coping With Cancer Theory, Research, and Intervention’, The Counseling Psychologist, vol. 41. No. 2. pp. 240-267, viewed 27 May 2014,<http://tcp.sagepub.com/content/41/2/240.short>.
Janet, B, 2005, ‘The alienation of the sufferer’. Advances in nursing science, Vol. 17 (4), pp. 53–72 Viewed 27 May 2014, <http://www.nursingcenter.com/lnc/JournalArticle?Article_ID=430629&Journal_ID=54009&Issue_ID=430617>.
National Breast and Ovarian Cancer Centre, 2011,Breast cancer statistics, Viewed on May 29, 2014, <http://www.nbocc.org.au/breast-cancer/about-breast-cancer/breast-cancer-statistics>.
Shuster, S, 2008, ‘the nature and consequence of Karl Marx’s skin disease’. British Journal of Dermatology, vol. 158. No.1. pp. 1-3, viewed 28 May 2014,<http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2133.2007.08282.x/full>.
Stankov, S &Stankov, K, 2011, ‘Descriptive epidemiology of breast cancer in Vojvodina’. The Breast, vol.20. No. 2. pp. 192-195, viewed 28 May 2014, <http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960977610002407>.
Traa, MJ, Meijs, CM EM, de Jongh, MAC, van der Borst, ECHM, &Roukema, JA, 2011, ‘Elderly women with breast cancer often die due to other causes regardless of primary endocrine therapy or primary surgical therapy’, The Breast, vol. 20. No. 4.pp. 365-369, viewed 29 May 2014,<http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960977611000294>.
Wu, S, Zhou, J, Ren, Y, Sun, J, Li, F, Lin, Q & He, Z, 2014, ‘Tumor location is a prognostic factor for survival of Chinese women with T1-2N0M0 breast cancer’, International Journal of Surgery, vol. 12. No.5.pp. 394-398, <http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1743919114000740>.
