CONTENTS
1. Introduction 3
2. The Causes of Juvenile Crime and Masculinity Theories 4
2.1. Connell’s Hegemonic Masculinity Theory 4
2.2. Youth Gangs in the USA and Masculine Gang Formation 5
2.3. The Causes of Juvenile Gang Crime 6
3. Discussion and conclusions 8
References 9
Introduction
The United States of America has one of the highest incarceration and crime rates in worldwide. In accordance with the findings of the United States Department of Justice approximately 10-12% of all crime perpetrated in the country is attributed to the minors. Despite the fact that there is a steady decline of crime committed by the juvenile offenders between 1998 and 2012, the commentators emphasize that the crime become more violent in danger and that the juveniles entered the crime areas, which were previously the domain of adult offenders (Taylor, 2013).
A noteworthy fact is that as much as half of all juvenile crime is perpetrated in gangs (Battin-Pearson, Thornberry, Hawkins & Krohn, 1998). Furthermore, much of the available research suggests that the cases of juvenile delinquency are hugely disproportionate between the males and the females (Holmes, James & Javad 2003). Thus, the concepts associated with masculinity theories, purport that aggression, violence and competitive nature are both genetic characteristics and societal attributes of males (Bettencourt & Miller, 1996). Various classic and contemporary scholars wrote that historically males were vested with responsibility of taking what they think they deserve. While for some of them legitimate methods of achieving their objectives are available, a significant portion of others have no other options, but to resort to illegal methods of enrichment and resolving problems (Chrisle & McCrear 2010).
This research analyzes the reasons of juvenile male crime in the light of masculinity theories. In particular, it explores the causes, which compel teenagers into joining gangs and discusses potential measures, which can be taken by the parents, the community and the law enforcement authorities to protect the new generations from jeopardizing their future.
The Causes of Juvenile Crime and Masculinity Theories
The focal point of the contemporary masculinity theories is the study of one of the most outstanding Australian sociologists Raewyn Connell, whose scholarly thought heavily influenced American and European social interpretations of juvenile crime.
Connell’s Hegemonic Masculinity Theory
In the multiple works, Professor Connell argued that the development of a human civilization evolutionally cultivated the dominant position of males in the societies, while women have been always positioned as their subordinates (Burton et al., 1998). These ideas conceptually originated from the first forms of human societies and hierarchies, when the men were viewed as breadwinners and protectors of other members of their tribe, which included females, elderly, children and other physically weak members of the community. The position of breadwinners and protectors, on whom the entire tribe depended, gradually transformed in a specific form of social order, where only physically and mentally able, heterosexual men were allowed to deliberate and to decide. Despite the fact that the necessity of physical protection and breadwinning has gradually faded away from the social landscape, the feature, strongly associated with these tasks, such as aggression, violence, emotional restraint (also known as stoicism), adventurous nature and courage socially and genetically preserved their importance (Liben & Bigler 2002).
Furthermore, the followers of Connell argued that since primitive Cro-Magnon societies of the immemorial times, the males have been especially predisposed to unification, as it has been (and remains) the most effective method of achieving commonly shared objectives and protecting values (DeLisi 2005). While the objective and values have seriously transformed over times, the methods of protecting them survived.
Youth Gangs in the USA and Masculine Gang Formation
The current literature highlights that the majority of young males join and form gangs in order to get protection from other teens and adult, to gratify their sense of psychological enjoyment and lust for money. In addition, the studies have confirmed a popular assumption that the youth are highly prone to joining a gang, if they have a prior criminal record, have school-relate problems or reside in criminally troublesome communities (Taylor 2013).
Juvenile gangs are a serious issue for the United States communities. Thus, in accordance with several national samples of students, over 29% of high school students reported that at least some members of their class were members of informal groups, which, among other issues, often resorted to violence to solve social problems of their individual members (Battin-Pearson, Thornberry, Hawkins & Krohn 1998). Furthermore, in accordance with the statistical survey of the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Protection between 9% and 10% of all minors between 12 and 19 are members of a gang.
Racially, around a half of all gang members are Hispanic Americans, almost 32% are of African-American origin and 11% are Caucasian. Almost 88% of the members of violent gangs (those, which committed at least a single crime) are males.
The research shows that in accordance with the masculinity theory, in the vast majority of cases a hierarchy of gangs exists, and, in order to be promoted to a membership in a serious criminal gang, a teenager has to serve for a certain period of time in a “junior” gang. Some scholars emphasized that because membership of these ‘probation gang camps’ is shifting and their lifetime typically intermittent these unifications should be rather viewed as primitive social networking hubs, than real gangs. However, those gang members, who successfully completed the stage of ‘gang apprenticeship’, form especially tight bonds with other members of the gang in the future.
The Causes of Juvenile Gang Crime
The causes of juvenile crime are different, and, are strongly connected to motives of juvenile offenders. In other words, it is the reason of perpetrating a crime, which determines why a teenager decides to commit a crime and, specifically, why this crime is committed by a group.
Firstly, there is strong evidence suggesting that in accordance with a hegemonic masculine theory uniting in a group allows the gang to perpetrate a crime, which its members cannot complete individually because a victim is either physically superior or a crime is so complicated, that resources of a one person are not sufficient to commit. Connell says that males with similar social characteristics (e.g. neighborhood, race, social background etc.) have similar goals (e.g. enrichment, self-realization) uniting their forces in order to accomplish a common mission is an evolutionary justified tactic (Wolfgang, Figlio & Sellin 1972).
These ideas are closely intertwined with theories of crime, specifically with its social strain and social disorganization ramifications. Under the first one, it is physical and social environments of a human being, which determine his or her choices of conduct (Howell 1999). In other words, this theory argues that in the overwhelming majority of cases social elements of the society (e.g. peer groups) compel its members to become engaged in delinquent activities, because no other alternatives remain available for them. Robert Merton and Robert Agnew were arguing that social strain dimension is one of the most important element in the framework of the juvenile gang crime causes (Taylor 2013).
The society itself developed the structures, which conditioned group crime as the most effective deviant response to frictions and pains generated by this society and inflicted upon its individual members (Taylor 2013). As a result, some members of this society start developing wrongful perceptions relating to allowable means and opportunities of achieving their goals and objectives (LIben & Bigler 2002). As a result, as long as implicating others into criminal activities appears to be an admissible form of conduct of them, uniting in gangs as the most effective method of robbing, burgling and committing other crimes will persist being a popular form of illegal organizations.
In addition, the supporters of social disorganization theory argue that it is the neighborhood of an offender, which determine his predilection to crime, as well as the methods and the limits of his criminal activities (Chrislie & McCrear 2010). Therefore, for socially disharmonious and dangerous communities with poor educational infrastructure, lack of employment opportunities and other prospects of living a decent life, the formation of gangs is a natural response of a young population to get resources to subsist themselves and their families. In general, social disorganization theory purports that the gangs are formed because a) this organization allow committing crime more effectively and with higher individual rewards for the gang members and b) because the formation of gangs is a social tradition for many American neighborhoods (DeLisi 2005).
Secondly, for many young Americans joining a gang is the only method of pursuing an illegal career path, because skills, ‘expertise’ and perks of other gang members complement their personal shortcomings, which makes it impossible for them to commit a crime individually (Taylor 2013). For instance, many young people do not have enough resoluteness to break societal norms, or they may simply lack practical knowledge in relation to some, most rewarding forms of crime. In gangs, it is easier to overcome resistance of a victim or attempt an escape attempt, if the police intervene. In other words, the bigger a gang is, the higher the chances of a successful crime, and, consequently, the rewards for its individual members are.
Thirdly, committing crimes in gangs allows the members to share responsibility with other gang members, at least chimerically (Holmes, James & Javad 2003). Many scholars argue that crime is an intrinsically abhorrent form of social activity for the majority of humans (DeLisi 2005). Yet, when social strains leave no other choice, but to resort to crime and violence. Sharing responsibility with others, and often thinking that they are more guilty than he or she, is therefore a form of psychological relieve for many young offenders.
Discussion and conclusions
Secondly, the theory of hegemonic masculinity developed by Raewyn Connell is one of the most explicative frameworks in this regard. Thus, among other features it highlights that males are genetically, evolutionally and socially prone to uniting in groups, electing leaders, establishing a hierarchical order and resorting to violence in order to resolve individual problems of the gang members.
Thirdly, the elements of social strain and social disorganization theories explain why juvenile crime is often committed in groups. In particular, among the most essential factors is the need to share responsibility with someone and to increase the chances of committing a crime successfully. Gang formation is the most effective social solution in this regard.
As far as responses to the problems of gang crimes are concerned, the policymakers should mainly focus on eradicating the causes of gang formations, not dealing with the symptoms only. Therefore, together with making the penalties more severe, the government should work on reforming dangerous neighborhoods and reducing income gap between the rich and the poor.
References
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Burton VS, Cullen FT., Evans TD, Alarid LF & Dunaway RG, 1998, Gender, self-control, and crime, Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 35 (2): 123–14. Web. Retrieved from http://troublesofyouth.pbworks.com/f/gender+self-control+and+crime.pdf
Chrisle J, & McCrear D, 2010, Handbook of gender research in psychology. New York: Springer.
Holmes SE, James RS, Javad K, 2003, Risk factors in childhood that lead to the development of conduct disorder and antisocial personality disorder, Child Psychiatry and Human Development 31 (3): 183–193
Wolfgang M, Figlio R, & Sellin T, 1972, Delinquency in a birth cohort. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
DeLisi M, 2005, Career criminals in society. Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage Pub.
Liben LS, &Bigler RS, 2002, The developmental course of gender differentiation: Conceptualizing, measuring, and evaluating constructs and pathways, Monographs of The Society for Research in Child Development 67(2), vvi-147.
Howell J, 1999, Youth gang homicides: A literature review. Crime & Delinquency, 45(2), pp.208-241.
Battin-Pearson SR, Thornberry TP., Hawkins DJ, & Krohn MD, 1998, Gang membership, delinquent peers, and delinquent behavior, U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Web. Retrieved from: https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles/171119.pdf
Taylor S, 2013, Why American boys join street gangs, International Journal of Social Anthropology ., 5(9), pp.339-349. Web. Retrieved from: http://www.academicjournals.org/journal/IJSA/article-full-text-pdf/837FD2641401
