Abstract
Child abuse is a despicable crime as it is directed at the youngest and most vulnerable segment of the population. In 2013, over 6 million children were reported abused or neglected to a child protective service agency (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2015). A vast range of psychological disorders is associated with early childhood trauma (van der Kolk, Hopper, & Cozier, 2001), including anxiety and mood disorders, personality disorders, and post-traumatic stress disorder (American Psychiatric Association, 2000), further complicating the seriousness of the problem. The paper explains the main reasons for child abuse as well as some ideas about the ways of preventing it. Also, the work includes the types of child abuse and the short description of each. The conclusion highlights measures used to combat abuse against children.
The Convention on the Rights of the Child states that special attention should be given to children who live in extremely hard social conditions (United Nations Human Rights [UNHR], 2016). To such categories belong children of several groups: orphans; children left without parental care; children in socially isolated families; children from unemployed families or those that are forced to work; child-victims of environmental disasters; children that left home; and children with drug and alcohol addictions (UNHR). Violence is one of the main dangers for the well-being of society, and children are the most unprotected category of the population when it comes to violence and abuse. They are vulnerable not only because they cannot defend themselves physically, but also because their very survival depends on adults, and they are not able to defend their own rights directly. In this regard, they often become victims of various injuries and damage to their identity and development.
Currently, there is no consensus about the root cause of domestic violence. A variety of micro - and macro theories have been proposed: the presence of mental disorders, the influence of socio-cultural values, and social organization. The main disputes exist between the followers of psychological theories and those who believe in social causation. Psychologists have found a special role of such mental factors as the weakening of control instincts, frustration, aggressiveness, alcoholism and psychopathology in the growth of violence. The adherents of the theory of social causality focus on cultural norms, inciting violence, patriarchal social structure that is conducive to the dominant role of men.
Violence is closely associated with social stress in the family (van der Kolk, Hopper & Crozier, 2001). Among the many issues that can increase the level of tension and lead to violence, there are: differences in parenting, sex, pregnancy, money troubles, unemployment, and the need for long term care. Constant irritation can be partly explained by chronic anxiety about unresolved issues and conflicting requirements imposed by society, and the discrepancy between desires and capabilities. Cruel and/or neglectful treatment of children is a typical manifestation of violence against children, which may jeopardize the survival of the child and has a detrimental effect on their physical, psychosocial, emotional, and sexual development (van der Kolk et al.). From the point of view of society as a whole and from the point of view of the welfare of future generations in particular, this leads to unfortunate consequences. For example, according to Daro (1998), children that suffer from abuse have behavioral problems and there performance at school is much worse than it could be. These thoughts are confirmed by Culbertson, Krous, and Bendell (1988), who in their research showed that maltreated children have developmental delays in almost all areas including language and cognitive skills.
In today's world, the abuse of children has many forms, including physical, sexual and emotional abuse, depriving children of proper care, and sexual exploitation of children for commercial purposes (Wang & Daro, 1997). This has serious implications for the health and development of the children and family well-being and society as a whole (van der Kolk et al., 2001). This issue is complex and painful. The state’s ultimate goal is to do everything to ensure that children can grow and develop in a world free from all forms of violence (Wang & Daro).
Studies of the problems of violence against children, including abuse, abandonment in dangerous conditions (intentionally or accidentally) and bringing them to suicide, is of particular interest from the point of view of a child's right to life and the care provided by parents or other adults (Widom & Maxfield, 1996). Almost daily, reports of tragic accidents with children can be heard or read in the media: they die in fires, drown, fall from heights or are victims of accidents. They are mistreated, raped, or suffer from permanent injuries. It is reported that abused children have a higher possibility of being arrested for violent criminal behavior, and delinquency compared to ordinary children (Widom & Maxfield). Over the last 35 years, society and specialists started to pay more attention to the issues of child abuse. Epidemiological studies in several countries indicate that maltreatment of children is more common than it was thought. In addition, various studies indicate that maltreatment of children may be associated with serious development challenges, with social and emotional problems in the future life of children who become victims of such treatment (Wang & Daro, 1997). The institutionalization, prostitution, alcoholism and drug abuse, antisocial and criminal behavior may lead to excessive use of mental health treatment services - including hospitalization in a psychiatric clinic - and mistreatment of children in the next generation. These are possible negative results of this problem. According to Department of Health and Human Services research performed in 1993, approximately 50% of child abuse incidences occur in poor families (van der Kolk et al., 2001).
Various forms of ill-treatment of children are a difficult and complex problem requiring concerted efforts of a number of systems - social services, health, education, law enforcement, and the judicial system - all of whom have the authority to address this problem (Daro, 1998). Cruelty to children is culturally determined: what is violent behavior in one society may be acceptable in another, or even in different groups of one society. Any prevention efforts should take that into account. Nevertheless, it is important to find an acceptable solution to this problem (UNHR, 2016).
Broadly speaking, there are four types of child abuse: physical violence, sexual violence, emotional abuse, and neglect (Wang & Daro, 1997). Physical abuse refers to the use of physical force that may result in various physical injuries. Sexual abuse refers to the involvement of children and adolescents in sexual activities with older people without understanding what they are doing and/or without their consent. Emotional abuse towards the child includes strong humiliation, blatant violation of the intimate sphere of the child, constant criticism, severe punishment, etc. Neglect is lack of the basic physical needs of the child, such as the need for food, clothing, hygiene, medical care and proper supervision (Wang & Daro).
The main goal is to increase the public’s awareness and knowledge regarding the scope of the problem and its consequences. By changing people's attitudes about child abuse, social and legal reforms become possible. Special programs aimed at parents that include education on child development, based on existing accumulated professional knowledge, but also contain specific guidance on the actions of parents towards the child depending on the situation and level of development of the child are paramount to addressing this issue (Daro, 1998). Preventive programs for children that include such things as the child's right to say no, the legality of the immunity of the body, and recognition of the signs of danger could further the cause by empowering children. Such programs implemented and available in centers in residential areas and public health facilities could facilitate awareness, education, and prevention eventually leading to permanent change (Daro).
A number of questions should be carefully considered. These include issues such as the mandatory reporting of cases of ill-treatment, punishment and alternatives to imprisonment, limitation of actions, expert evidence, the impact of abuse and neglect on children, the conduction of criminal investigations against the person who committed the criminal acts, and the question of state responsibility for ensuring the child protection and the necessity of rehabilitation treatment (Daro, 1998). There are institutions that are responsible for the protection of the child and for providing treatment and other services for children who are victims of abuse and/or their families (for example, institutions of mental health treatment, various social services, domiciliary/residential care services) (Widom & Maxfield, 1996). All employees of such systems should be trained in order to become familiar with the basic characteristics of this problem, ensure understanding of the availability of the relevant services and how to use them, as well as to understand some of the legal aspects associated with this problem (Widom & Maxfield). Of special consideration must be afforded to the social protection of children with disabilities, especially those who, due to their illness, suffer deviations in mental development, limited ability to manage self-care, or who have been educated at home and therefore lack any social support systems outside that home. The parents of these children, as well as young families and single mothers face not only medical and economic challenges but are especially vulnerable to social problems (van der Kolk et al., 2001).
The growth of diseases associated with heredity, an unfavorable course of pregnancy, and childbirth contribute to the increase in the number of children with disabilities because of the difficulty in treating them. Among the causes of disability are diseases of the nervous system and sense organs, mental disorders, and congenital malformations. The main efforts in solving medical problems of children with a disability are directed at preventing the birth of babies with severe malformations, early - from the moment of birth - rehabilitation of children with disabilities, and children at risk (Culbertson et al., 1988). Social services focus on the socio-pedagogical assistance for families with disabled children and young disabled people, performing the role of mediator between people with disabilities and family members, teachers, friends, and other social institutions. States need to create a variety of hotline connections for children, parents, professionals and concerned citizens; these hotlines should provide direct consultation for anonymous users (Daro, 1998). An important tool is the use of different media. The widespread use of television, radio and newspapers provides an excellent opportunity to conduct a systematic campaign for the prevention of cruelty to children. Special articles on the problems associated with the abuse of children should be published in children's and youth magazines or other media aimed at children (Daro).
The problem of child abuse is a classic intersection of individual, family and social problems. The prevention of cruelty to children is an enormous task. The process of solving this is a slow, often frustrating process and requires initiative, knowledge, belief, and patience. It is imperative, however, to understand and solve this problem, because they are our future.
References
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Culbertson, J., Krous, H., & Bendell, D. (1988). Sudden infant death syndrome. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
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United Nations Human Rights. (2016). Conventions on the rights of the child. Retrieved from http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CRC.aspx
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Widom, C.S., and Maxfield, M.G. (1996). A prospective examination of risk for violence among abused and neglected children. Annals: New York Academy of Science, pp.224- 237.
