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Introduction
China is home to the most ancient and enduring human civilization. This civilization flourished for thousands of years and have survived through many succession of rulers and dynasties. The study of China’s civilization is important in order to understand China’s contemporary society. Chinese civilization can be categorized into three broad historical periods: ancient China, Imperial China and modern China. These periods, however, only serves as an imaginary partition in order to identify a certain time in the history of China. But in reality, Chinese civilization is continuous and was never interrupted even through there were major upheavals over the course of its history. This uninterrupted development of its civilization can be attributed to the geographical barriers that separates China from the rest of the world’s civilization that could have challenged its existence. China, for instance, is bordered in the North by the Gobi Dessert, one the biggest and driest dessert in the world, and in the west by the Taklamakan desert. There is also the expansive mountain ranges of the Himalayas in the southwest. These natural barriers effectively separated China from the rest of Asia and Europe. This isolation enabled China to develop its own unique civilization with little foreign interference until such time when Europeans were able to make continuous contact with China in the 14th and 15th century.
Ancient China
China’s civilization is believed to have developed along the banks of its three major rivers; the Yangtze River that runs through central China, the Yellow River in northern China and the Pearl River in southern China (Asian Art Museum 7). According to historians, social life started around these regions as early as the Neolithic period around 8,000 B.C. (Asian Art Museum). The Chinese ancestors were hunters and gatherers who gradually settled at the fertile plains of China’s major rivers as they learn how to cultivate and grow their own food through agriculture. Rice production was the primary agricultural crop supplemented by root crops and domesticated animals. Early Chinese ancestors also learned how to make pottery and ornaments. Three dynasties emerged during the period of ancient China. The oldest of which is the legendary Xia Dynasty, which, according to historians, ruled a portion of China around 2,000 B.C. (Asian Art Museum). The Xia dynasty was succeeded by the Shang Dynasty sometime in 1500 B.C. The Shiang dynasty (c.1500 - 1050 BC) was the start of China’s recorded history. Rulers of the Shang Dynasty commissioned scribes that made written records of religious significance. The ancient Chinese scribes used a pictographic writing system that closely resemble the Summerian and Egyptian and inscribe them in bones and bronze materials (Asian Art Museum 14). In the Shang Dynasty, the king is both a political and a religious leader. It is also common for rulers to move their capital. The Shang Dynasty, for example, is believed to have moved the capital of its government at least five times due to strategic military and political reasons (Asian Art Museum). In 1050 B.C., the Shang Dynasty was replaced by the Zhou Dynasty.
The Golden Age of Chinese Philosophy
It was under the Zhou Dynasty (1050 - 221 BC) when major Chinese philosophies emerged. One of which is Confucianism; which was founded by the famous Chinese philosopher, Confucius who lived around 600 to 500 B.C. His philosophy centered on virtues of filial piety, loyalty, goodness and benevolence. The teachings of Confucius formed the foundation of Chinese ethics and morality as well as the basis for the respect of old rituals and traditions that honor Chinese elders and ancestors. Confucius was able to spread his philosophy and gain many disciples as he traveled around China. His philosophies became a major school of thought and has even become the foundation of Chinese scholarship. Part of Confucian philosophy is the desire for an ideal society, which, according to him can be achieved if everyone devote themselves selflessly in doing the task that they are doing.
Aside from the philosophy of Confucius, another school of thought also emerged in China during the Zhuo Dynasty; the Taoism. Taoism or Daoism is founded by the philosopher, Laozi, who lived at the same period as with Confucius. Daoism came from the root word ‘Dao,’ which refers to the essence of all things (Asian Art Museum 84). Daoism emphasizes harmony with nature as ‘the way.’ The Daoists believe that the problems people face in the world is a result of acts that go against nature, such as greed and selfishness. The people, thereby, should revert back to nature and refrain from doing things that can destroy the natural order of things or refrain from doing things that could harm the environment. Daoism is all about balancing the forces of nature, which Daoist refers to a the Yin and the Yang. Accordingly, the Yin represents feminine, dark or cool forces or energies while Yang represents the masculine, bright or hot energies. Buddhist beliefs were later incorporated to Daoism making Daoism more of a religious belief than a philosophical school of thought.
Imperial China
Imperial China is believed to have started during the Qin Dynasty (221 - 206 BC), when its first ruler, after conquering all other Zhou states, declared himself as the first Emperor of China (Asian Art Museum 20). The Qin Dynasty did not last long, but it was successful in establishing a strong central government and was also attributed for starting the Great Wall. Discontent and internal conflicts caused the Qin Dynasty to collapse after the death of the emperor; giving rise to the Han Dynasty. The Han Dynasty made major contributions to Chinese civilization. It was during their reign when China made significant progress in commerce when it opened trading connections with the West through the Silk Road. It was also during this time when the Chinese invented the paper (Encyclopædia Britannica, “Han Dynasty, Chinese History”). The Han dynasty, according to historians, is a literate society and is well-documented because they are prolific record keepers (Encyclopædia Britannica, “Han Dynasty, Chinese History”). It was also during the Han dynasty when Buddhism infiltrated and spread across China. Nearing the end of the Han dynasty, the Emperor abdicated his throne and China broke into three territories each under the rule of warlords. China was again reunited under the Sui dynasty (581- 618 AD). The Sui dynasty only lasted for two reigns and was replaced by the Tang Dynasty (AD 618-906) that reigned for almost two centuries.
The Tang reign is considered as the golden period of Chinese culture, particularly in art and literature. Chinese poetry flourished during the Tang period, which can be attributed in part to the invention of printing. Historians also attribute the invention of the gunpowder during the Tang dynasty (Bodde 9). The Chinese, however, were slow to develop the gunpowder as a weapon. It was also during this time when China first opened itself to Westerners. Among the first Westerners to arrive in China were Christian missionaries who call themselves as Nestorians. The Tang dynasty collapsed due to internal upheavals and was replaced by the Song dynasty (960-1279). Major changes were made during the Song dynasty in order to strengthen China’s central government. A revival of Confucianism is also observed during this period. China, however, was conquered by the Mongols by the 13th century, which ended the reign of the Song dynasty.
The Mongols established the Yuan dynasty that ruled China for almost a century. It was during the Yuan dynasty when China’s relationship with foreigners greatly improved. The Mongols traded openly with European merchants and hired foreigners as government officials. Major infrastructures were built during the Yuan reign such as roads and canals, which facilitated domestic and international trade (Encyclopædia Britannica, “Yuan Dynasty, Chinese History”). Discontent and uprising, however, plagued the latter part of the Mongol rule. Internal rivalries between Mongol rulers also weakened the empire, which led to their eventual ouster when Zhu, the founder of the Ming dynasty seized the Yuan capital in Beijing in 1368. The Ming dynasty that followed did not accomplish much as it has to deal with internal and external threats. The Mongols frequently raided China’s northern territory, prompting the Ming to develop extensively the Great Wall. The Ming dynasty, however, was no match to the rising foreign imperialism of the Japanese and the Europeans. It was also during the Ming reign when the Jesuits missionary arrived in China, exposing the Chinese to European culture.
The Ming dynasty, however, succumbed to the Manchus, a coalition of formerly nomadic tribes in northeastern China. Initially, they were asked by a Ming general to help quell a peasant rebellion. To avoid capture by the rebels, the Ming emperor hanged himself. But after the rebellion subsided, the Manchus refused to abdicate and took control of China for themselves, establishing the Qing dynasty in 1644. Like the Mongols, the Manchus are also foreign invaders. However, the Manchus easily assimilated into the greater Chinese society and were eventually absorbed by its culture. In fact, by the end of their rule, distinction between the Manchus and the Chinese is almost non-existent. The Qing dynasty (1644-1911) is the last of China’s dynasty until it was taken down and replaced by a revolutionary government, which established China as a republic.
Modern China
The failure of the Qing dynasty to protect China’s interests waned the people’s support towards their rule. China felt helpless and humiliated in the face of the British, Russian and Japanese encroachment. Attempts to fightback the foreigners failed as what happened during the Opium war and the Boxer rebellion. The Republic of China was first established by revolutionaries who defected against the Qing dynasty. After declaring their independence from Qing’s rule, China’s revolutionary leaders send delegates and chose Sun Yat Sen as the first provisional president of China. A truce was made between the rebels and the Manchu’s top general, Yuan Shikai to let the latter become president in exchange for the abdication of the Qing’s emperor, which the rebels accepted. Yuan, however, died for unknown reasons, leaving a vacuum of power that eventually led to a civil war between two major political parties, the Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party or the CCP. The CCP, led by Mao Zedong, eventually prevailed while the Kuomintang led by Sun Yat Sen established a government in exile in Taiwan. Both leaders claimed that their government were authentic and refused to recognize each other.
The new Chinese republic under Mao put an end to Western imperialism in China and reclaimed lost territories from Russia and Japan through diplomatic means. Under Mao, China experienced major upheavals and drastic social changes. Government sponsored programs, which later on proved to be a disaster both to Chinese economy and culture. One of which is the Great Leap Forward, an ambitious program that aims to make China an industrial superpower. China shifted its focus from the agricultural sector towards the industrial production of steel; forcing farmers to abandon their fields, which eventually caused widespread famine. Mao also launched the Cultural Revolution, which aims to eradicate old customs and traditions, which Mao believe, is pulling China backwards. What it did, however, was instigate a major upheaval of China’s young people who organized themselves into a loose organization called the Red Guards. These young people attacked Chinese traditional institutions including University libraries and museums. They also persecuted many Chinese scholars and intellectuals whom they believe are moderates and are symbolic of the old customs. Mao’s regime was chaotic and many Chinese elites left China to seek asylum in other countries. These government programs further isolated China from the rest of the world. However, after the death of Mao, China began to recover when its political leaders embarked on economic and political reforms that eventually revived China’s political stability and prosperity.
Conclusion
The Chinese civilization is one of the most enduring and continuous civilization in the world. As a result, China has made many significant contribution to the world in science, culture and arts. Initially, the Chinese believe that they were the center of human civilization, but they experience a rude awakening when foreigners, which they refer to as uncivilized or barbarians, encroached and invaded their country and make them become subject of foreign rule. Nevertheless, China recovered and has made great progress through political and social reforms. Modern China is a product of its history, culture and traditions; some of which were abandoned while others have stood the test of time.
Works Cited
Asian Art Museum. “Ancient China: From the Neolithic Period to the Han Dynasty.” 1999. Web. 5 Jan. 2017.
Bodde, Derk. “China’s Gifts to the West.” 2004. Web. 6 Jan. 2017.
Encyclopædia Britannica. “Han Dynasty, Chinese History.” 2015. Web. 6 Jan. 2017.
---. “Yuan Dynasty, Chinese History.” 2015. Web. 6 Jan. 2017.
