Literature review
The relationship established between the teachers and the students in of paramount importance in the success of any learning institution (Mujis & Reynold, 2010). The teacher plays a significant role in the establishment of this productive working environment that will make the students perform in the best way. Mujis and Reynold say that efficient management of a classroom entails proper discipline, sufficient motivation of students and class preparedness among others. They say that the success of any teacher is dependent on classroom training, organization and management as they help in planning hence preventing potential problems. Strategies on arranging physical space, using good communication skills, planning and conducting instruction, choosing rules and procedures, dealing with problem behavior, maintaining appropriate behavior, and managing individual groups are necessary for the success of a teacher.
Broome (2013) emphasizes further on the importance of the student-teacher relationship. He says that the general public and the teachers continue to report that the most arduous task remains for the teachers is the management of student behavior. In his work Broome aims at designing a new art room that can provide all the components that are required for effective classroom management. Broome further suggests three elements that are critical for effective management of a class. They include new classroom rules, student routines, and prompt classroom environments. He also says that an inviting and comforting environment are important for both psychological and physical security of the learners. The result of these will be the creation of a reasonable environment that will encourage social contact and interaction in the classroom.
Dreikurs et al. (2013), start by acknowledging that the strategies that can be employed for successful classroom management are not the same for every teacher. It is crucial for the teachers to recognize the difference because a problem exists when teachers apply principles that are not unique to them then end up not being as efficient as they intended. They go further and say that an effective learning environment should foster creativity, scholarly attainment, joy in learning, respectful social relationship and development of responsible citizens. Most of the education policies are concerned at permissiveness and strictness which can be termed as ineffective strategies. Permissiveness can lead to anarchy while strictness, on the other hand, can result in rebellion. These prove that teachers ought to prevent this by creating a better environment.
Curtin (2005) conducted a study in an economically disadvantaged urban area which had more than thirty percent immigrant students. The study was aimed at investigating how regular teachers are often ill equipped when teaching students that are learning English not as their first language and are mainstreamed into regular classes. The didactic and interactive teachers had varied opinions the way to deal with students that are learning English as their second language. Curtin ends by suggesting that, for teachers to achieve reasonable results they need to use multiple intelligences in attacking the major domains of the learners. He also highlights the stakeholders as being important since they play a significant role in t providing effective teaching to students learning English as their second language until they achieve proficiency levels.
Instruction Methods
Anne et al. (2008), did research on the use of differentiated instructions in the context f students learning English as their second language. They aimed at giving practical differentiated instruction strategies that can be used to teaching students that are English as their second language and are mainstreamed into regular classes. They suggest the first step entails the ensuring of a high-quality curriculum that has meaningful learning outcomes in both language and content. Without the first step, differentiation is impossible. The second step involves the understanding of the needs of the students, their interests, readiness, and learning profiles. The second step should be based on a careful assessment of the learners. The last step involves the implementation of differentiated instruction strategies that are effective in maximizing the learning of all students.
In another article Norma (2014) examines the effectiveness multiple intelligences in vocabulary acquisition amongst students learning English as their second language. The study took place in the K-12 school in Lebanon. He noticed that the students learned new vocabulary faster when traditional teaching methods were used, but they hardly retained what they had learned. On the contrary, student retained much of the knowledge gained from sessions that employed multiple intelligences strategy. The teachers who applied the various intelligence techniques had a little usage of high order thinking skills. In the end, Norma recommends that multiple intelligences should be the teaching method of choice when it comes to students that are English as their second language. The ordinary intelligences aim at efficiency in dealing with real life problems and in making a positive contribution to society.
Legislative changes such as the No Child left behind act and the Individuals with Disabilities Education act lead to an increase in the inclusion of students with behavioral and emotional disorders in general classrooms (Carolynne, 2008). She says that such students need intervention in order to survive in such a setting. In a study, she identified five primary methods of intervention. They include discovery teaching, writing instructions, teacher modeling, guided notes and cross-age tutoring. In another study, Keel et al. (1999), suggest that teachers have to be equipped with relevant knowledge and skills that are potent in dealing with students with mild disabilities. They claim that there has to be interplay between diagnostic methods and handling strategies in order for the learners with mild inabilities to get the best out of learning.
Effective Curriculum Utilization
The curriculum is an important contributor to the success of any learning institution, and the management is usually responsible for the management and implementation of the curriculum. The person in charge of the curriculum is supposed to focus on control issues, reviewing of materials, encouraging a predictable routine and solving the problems that are encountered daily (Marzano et al., 2005). Marzano et al., continue and say that an essential function of any school leadership is curriculum development. It involves choosing from many possibilities a set of values that should be promoted in the classroom. It’s then the work of the leadership to ensure that the curriculum is translated into classroom activities that produce the outcomes of the curriculum. Monitoring of the actualization of the curriculum is crucial, and the process should be reviewed and validated. Using the results as a guideline also helps in motivating all the involved parties.
Marzano et al. also say that the maintenance of the curriculum at the school level is not an easy task. For the school-based curriculum leaders, serving as a medium for information about classroom instructions is the most important maintenance function. Another important maintenance work is the ensuring of compliance with the changing laws that control education. Also ensuring that the school is supplied with necessary materials for instructions is a maintenance function. Marzano and his co-authors believe that the leadership in schools should go beyond management or maintenance function to address reforms for now and future. Tasks overlap in both dynamic and maintenance administration and maintenance serves to support a more future-oriented and dynamic leadership role. The local conditions of every school will determine the ratio of the dynamic and maintenance forms of curriculum leadership.
In a case study in Hong Kong, Lee and Dimmock (1999) examine the role of management in the monitoring and innovation of curriculum. Their study reveals that neither the principals nor the senior teachers paled a significant role in innovation and monitoring of curriculum. They suggest that the government should restructure the school system in order to involve the school administration, organizations and government stakeholders in developing the curriculum. They say that managing and leading curriculum is a more content and subject based than a generic principle based activity. Curriculum management and leadership tend to be easily disjointed because they are fragmented. Leadership and management are supposed to be done in a whole school perspective.
Classroom Tools/Materials
Mensah et al. (2009), in their study they introduce a method that is important in the evaluation of cost effectiveness of tools of management in public institutions. They say that in the recent decades there has been a shift towards outcome measures and performance budgeting for institutions of the public sector. The change creates a need for the formal linking of inputs consumed and the results achieved.. There is an inherent problem of accounting of costs in the public sector and, Mensah and her co-writers propose a statistical method for the identification of the most cost-effective tool. It involves the estimation of both cost function and outcome function and relating the two to determine the best choice of management tools. However, the underutilized variables need to be addressed for improvement in the performance of school management.
It is of paramount importance that secondary school teachers that are just beginning their career to be provided with prompt instructions before they continue (Palumbo & Sanacore, 2007). The experienced secondary school teachers provide relevant suggestions that focus on classroom management. In their work, Palumbo and Sanacore suggest that the newly recruited teachers need to help the learners to become academically engaged, organize instruction that accommodate the students strengths and weaknesses and finally motivate all the pupils during the instructional activities. Since classroom management is an important factor in learning, the teachers need thorough training on the issue in order for the students to get the best out of them. They conclude by saying that effective teachers and classroom management are the most crucial elements of effective teaching.
Integration of Special Learners
Julie et al. (2014) say that keeping the students in the class engaged is a common challenge for most teachers. Some very brilliantly structured classes can fall on deaf ears or be upended by disruption from pupils. They say that studies recognize that effective learning depends on both a well-managed class and engaging instructions. Before any misbehavior comes about it is critical for the teachers to have plans and implement the daily routines. The right kind of association with the students is also crucial, and it helps maintain a focus on instruction. Juliet and her co-writers suggest that programs should be set up to prepare the teachers on class management strategies. The program should begin with the foundational course to the final experience as teachers.
The teachers, service providers, and paraprofessionals are crucial to the success of emotionally disabled students (Mary et al., 2000). Mary and her fellow writers say that each and every teacher believes that each and every student is capable of learning and each one of them requires the best education. The teachers also believe that no student, no matter the state, should interrupt with the learning process of other students. The students with emotional and behavioral problems pose great challenges for the teachers. The teachers that are not equipped to deal with these emotionally disturbed and disruptive students always end up being perplexed. Most of them end up giving much attention to that one child and end up neglecting the rest of the pupils. Others get overwhelmed by the situation and get defeated to stop the troubled student from interfering with the attention of others.
Mary and her co-writers continue saying that since the troubled students cannot be banished from the class, the teachers ought to employ tactics that will help deal with the situation. Also since the goal of every teacher should be to impart a positive impact on the students, banishing the challenged would not be the best option. Although there are instances where the efforts of the teacher fail to deal with the problem and the disruptive student gets to affect the attention of others continuously. Such situations deserve stern actions that might involve the placing of the disruptive student in an alternate education setting. To avoid many of such situations the teachers before starting their career should be adequately prepared to deal with the emotionally disabled. They should be given thorough training on how to balance between controlling the disruptive child and keeping the class going.
Sawka et al. (2002), acknowledge that the knowledge of staff on efficient management of behavior and strategies of instruction increase the engagement of students. Together with those two, successful implementation of skills when in the classroom and follow-up consultative support also enhance the participation of pupils, and it also increases the satisfaction of the teachers. Sawka et al. believe that training alone is not enough in the equipping of teachers in dealing with students with emotional and behavioral disorders. The study included sixty-four school staff members in one urban area. The results showed that a combined consultation and active training are necessary in order to build the required capacity for these learners. The two are equally important such that one without the other cannot give the desired outcomes.
Among many other important skills, Simonsen and the co-writer say that classroom management is one of the most critical skills that each and every educator needs to possess. Teachers need proper training and adequate support in implementing the practices that are likely to be successful. They identified twenty practices as having enough evidence to be considered for adoption in the classroom. The classroom practices were grouped into five depending on their ability to: maximize structure, actively engage the students in a way that is observable teach post, review, monitor and reinforce expectations, use a range of strategies for responding to appropriate behavior and use a variety of strategies to respond to inappropriate behavior. Each and every feature has an evidence-based description that makes it valuable in learning.
Guidance and Counseling in Classroom
Christopher (2004) say that most of the urban schools are nowadays comprised of children that can be described as disaffected, disenchanted, disturbed, disaffiliated and disruptive. These children live in conditions that have vastly affected their readiness to accept the school. The conditions include infestation of illegal drugs, loss of meaningful employment by family and the increase in households with single parents. These children that face such adverse conditions always have a greater propensity for engaging in inappropriate behaviors that prove disruptive to the learning process. These practices act as a form of communication and the affected child they seem logical and reasonable. The individual’s learning process, social acceptance, and inclusion opportunities. Such challenges can be dangerous and life threatening. Antisocial behavior among the youth leads to academic and social issues.
Christopher in his book names some of the educational and social problems that affect young students. They include membership in deviant groups, low self-esteem, substance abuse, delinquency, and truancy. In addressing these issues, physical arrangement and management strategies are of a critical Importance. A proper seating arrangement of seating in class is the cheapest form of classroom management. Assigned seating positions for students is excellent in facilitating discipline and instructions. If allowed to choose their seating place, they always tend to choose a location that puts the teacher at the greatest disadvantage. Students are supposed to be seated in a position where their attention is directed towards the teacher. They should be able to see the chalkboard clearly, and they should be facing the front and away from the window. Lastly, the class arrangement should be able to accommodate all the possible teaching activities.
Trussell (2008) says that the intent of positive behavior support is to have an environment that is efficient in promoting social and learning outcomes. The result is to prevent the occurrence of problem behavior. One essential feature of providing positive behavior support is implementing classroom universal practices that are designed for all students. The universal practices are the organizational and instructional practices that are important in the prevention of the occurrence of problem behavior. The positive behavior support focuses on all the aspects of the school environment and has been of value in early intervention and prevention of problems. A positive behavior support system has three elements that include classroom universal interventions, target group interventions, and individually designed interventions. The first aspect of classroom universals deals with the general environment and it focuses on classroom setup procedures and evaluation. The second aspect deals with instructional and interactional behavior of the teacher.
Wilhite et al. (2007) say that teachers need new tools to help them deal with students that exhibit problem behaviors. The behavioral objective sequence is an instrument that gives a developmental perspective in addressing the problem behaviors within an instructional model. The behavior objective sequence can be used to assessing the student functioning level, the various students’ special eligibility for appropriate referrals and provides an adequate environment for Individualized Education Programs. The behavior objective system can also lead to the determination of essential classroom environment components. All these help the teachers to be able to implement more efficient strategies for dealing with problem behaviors.
References
Broome, J. L. (2013). A case study in classroom management and school involvement: Designing an art room for effective learning. Art Education, 66 (3), 39-46.
Dahlman, Anne; Hoffman, Patricia; Brauhn, Susan. (2008). Classroom Strategies and Tools for Differentiating Instruction in the ESL Classroom. Minnesota and Wisconsin Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages. Retrieved from the University of Minnesota Digital Conservancy, http://purl.umn.edu/109954.
Dreikurs, R., Grunwald, B. B., & Pepper, F. C. (2013). Maintaining sanity in the classroom: Classroom management techniques. Taylor & Francis
Ellen "Aileen" Curtin. (2005). Instructional styles used by regular classroom teachers while teaching recently mainstreamed ESL students: Six urban middle school teachers in Texas share their experiences and perceptions. Multicultural Education, 12 (4), 36-42.
Ghamrawi, N. (2014). Multiple Intelligences and ESL Teaching and Learning An Investigation in KG II Classrooms in One Private School in Beirut, Lebanon. Journal of Advanced Academics, 25(1), 25-46.
Gischel, C. K. (2008). Academic interventions for successful inclusion of students with mild to moderate emotional/behavioral disabilities in general education classrooms: A systematic review of literature. Orlando, Fla: University of Central Florida.
Keel, M. C., Dangel, H. L., & Owens, S. H. (1999). Selecting instructional interventions for students with mild disabilities in inclusive classrooms Focus on Exceptional Children, 31 (8), 1-16
Lee, J. C., & Dimmock, C. (1999). Curriculum leadership and management in secondary schools: A hong kong case study. School Leadership & Management, 19 (4), 455-491.
Quinn, M. M., Osher, D., Warger, C., Hanley, T., Bader, B., Tate, R., & Hoffman, C. (2000). Educational strategies for children with emotional and behavioral problems. Retrieved November, 27, 2006.
Marzano, R. J., Waters, T., & McNulty, B. A. (2005). School leadership that works: From research to results. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. 1703 North Beauregard Street, Alexandria, VA 22311-1714.
Mensah, Y. M., Schoderbek, M. P., & Werner, R. H. (2009) A methodology for evaluating the cost-effectiveness of alternative management tools in public-sector institutions: An application to public education. Journal of Management Accounting Research, 21, 203-239.
Muijs, D., & Reynolds, D. (2010). Effective teaching: Evidence and practice. Sage.
Palumbo, A., & Sanacore, J. (2007) Classroom management: Help for the beginning secondary school teacher. The Clearing House, 81 (2), 67-70.
Sawka, K. D., McCurdy, B. L., & Mannella, M. C. (2002). Strengthening emotional support services: An empirically based model for training teachers of students with behavior disorders. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 10 (4), 223-232.
Simonsen, B., Fairbanks, S., Briesch, A., Myers, D., & Sugai, G. (2008). Evidence-based practices in classroom management: Considerations for research to Practice1. Education & Treatment of Children, 31 (3), 351-380. Retrieved from
Trussell, R. P. (2008). Classroom universals to prevent problem behaviors. Intervention in School and Clinic, 43 (3), 179-185.
Wilhite, K., Braaten, S., Frey, L., & Wilder, L. K. (2007). Using the behavioral objective sequence in the classroom Intervention in School and Clinic, 42 (4), 212-218.
