Women have historically played a subordinate role to men across social, political and economic spheres. The oppression is clear in the firmly embedded gender roles set expectations of proper attitudes, activities and behaviour for both genders. Gender differences have persisted in the United States culture due to the systematic socialization of infants and babies, adolescents, children and adults. Women are traditionally expected to hold domestic roles and child rearing, while men, who are thought to be stronger and more aggressive, took on the responsibility of providing for the family. This perception is reflected in the careers that the respective genders are programmed to assume. Women were neither allowed to vote nor were they allowed to hold leadership positions in many institutions, including universities.
There have been significant changes in part with modernization, but also because of the efforts by the suffrage, feminist and other women empowerment movements. Institutional barriers to attainment of equal opportunity have been lifted in many ways with society having become more accepting of women’s involvement in previously male-dominated jobs. Among the notable measures to eliminate institutionalized discrimination include the Civil Rights Act (1964) as well as other constitutional changes that have facilitated affirmative action initiatives across the country. Access to formal education has also risen.
Even so, there remain major inequalities across all spheres of life. Gender roles still play a key role in shaping children’s achievement and outlook in life. There is poverty among single mothers and thus the feminization of poverty. While outright barriers to women’s mobility in social, economic and political spheres have largely been eliminated, and men have increasingly taken on domestic responsibilities (e.g. childcare and housework), glass ceilings still exist for women. Pay inequality, sexual harassment, biased performance appraisal systems, negative attitudes towards women leadership/management and limited upward mobility remains a problem. While there are a number of women holding key leadership positions like Yahoo, Pepsi, Kraft Foods and Du Pont, these are a definite minority compared to their male counterparts. Even more so, ethnic minorities have far greater barriers against them, with only one Black woman, has even headed a Fortune 500 corporation (p. 349).
Society and media have stereotypical gender constructions that depict masculinity and femininity. To begin with, men are often depicted/seen as aggressive, authoritative, worldly, and interested in sports. On the other hand, women are depicted/viewed as sexy, gentle, domesticated and enjoy picnics. Depictions of men as idiots who have no clue about domestic work such cooking and baby care are emblematic of the gender stereotypes. Similarly, boys are girls are usually socialized differently, with boys being encouraged to be aggressive, hardy and hardworking, while girls are not. Phrases/words like tomboy, sissy, “don’t be a girl” or “be a man” are common and are used to force people to conform the societal constructions about gender.
GLBT people have historically faced lack of recognition, stigmatization and discrimination even more than the disabled, racial minorities and even the elderly have. Recognition only came in the 1920’s, when organizations and facilities emerged to cater specifically for the needs of gays and lesbians. Stigmatizations did, however, carry on to the present day America, which points to the fact that even the increased recognition hardly promoted greater understanding. The police raided and jailed same-sex partners, based on laws that were hostile to homosexuality, which persist in some states to as late as the year 2004.
Homophobia remains in every sphere of life for the GLBT community in the United States, including in organized religion, family, law, workplace and the media, which the consequence of keeping the respective community oppressed. For some reason, unlike racism and ethnic chauvinism, homophobia is largely considered both justifiable and respectable form of bigotry. Sexual orientation was, and still is constructed as either homosexual or heterosexual. Bisexuals are either disregarded or generally included in the transgendered category of people.
However, gay rights efforts and increasing awareness is slowly leading to increased acceptance, with progressive industries such as Hollywood being largely welcoming to openly gay actors and actresses, despite the fact that there are few in starring roles. National surveys show that as many as 53% of the public believed same-sex marriages should be both legal and valid, but incidences of oppression persist. In 1998, a university student was killed without provocation because he was gay. Gay marriages still do not enjoy similar legal/social privilege and status as heterosexual marriages.
Indeed, the legal recognition of LBGT marriages/partnerships remains a live issue in the United States today.
This is not least because of multiple Supreme Court rulings that suggest that such relationships and unions are not (or should not be) protected by the Constitution. In Bowers v. Hardwick (1986), the Supreme Court held that the Constitution sis not protect homosexual relations between consenting adults, before the Court declared that LBGT “were entitled to respect for their private lives” in Lawrence v. Texas (2003). In the year 2000, the Supreme Court held that “the Boy Scouts organization had a constitutional right to exclude gay members because opposition to homosexuality was part of the organization’s message”.
References
Madrigal, A. (2014, JUne 29). Dads on Sitcoms. Retrieved Oct 27, 2014
Schaefer, T. (2012). Racial and Ethnic Groups, Thirteenth Edition Richard. New York: Peachpit Press.
