I Multiple Choice
1. (a) general deterrence
2. (a) genetics
3. (d) neither set of parents were criminals
4. (a) a drug addict
5. (b) specific deterrence
6. (a) neoclassical
7. (a) criminality does tend to run in some families
8. (c) there are many theories to explain why people behave the way that they do
9. (b) frustration
10. (b) dealing drugs
11. (b) permanent population
12. (d) Sutherland
13. (a) conformity
14. (c) control theory
15. (c) labeling theory
16. (b) primary deviance
17. (f) control theories
18. (a) Hirschi and Gottfredson
19. (a) civil rights movement
20. (b) the offender is arrested for possession of a controlled substance
21. (b) Sutherland
22. (d) white collar criminals
23. (a) business executives
TRUE OR FALSE
24. (a) True
25. (a) True
26. (a) True
27. (a) True
28. (a) True
29. (b) False
30. (a) True
SHORT ESSAY
31. Primitive criminological theories were based on superstition and religious beliefs. These theories believed that criminological tendencies are caused by evil or supernatural spirits. Criminals were then regarded as being possessed by such evil spirits and were given punishments not fit for humans. For example, women who did not exactly conform to mainstream and traditional roles that society envisioned women should play or who practiced unorthodox religions were regarded as witches and punished by burning them alive at stake. This is what happened in Salem, Massachusetts when a series of burning a stake of women took place because of the belief that they were witches. Other forms of punishment embraced by the primitive criminological theories include beheading, torture, drowning, stoning and quartering.
32. The classical view of crimes, primarily developed by Cesare Beccaria, countered the irrationality of primitive criminological theories. Thus, while earlier theories were anchored on the metaphysical and superstitious beliefs, the classical view attempted to rationalize crime. Thus, these theories adopted rational principles, such as the view that human behavior is an expression of natural reason and that therefore an individual adopts a particular course of action because it is the most reasonable from his perspective. If someone steals money, for example, this decision has been arrived at because that person thinks it is the most reasonable course to take and the most advantageous as he profits from having more money. The classical view, thus, believed that man is naturally pleasure-seeking, yet shuns pain as this does not give him any advantage. A person always maximizes or exploits situations to his advantage regardless of its moral or ethical consequences. This is because man is a rational being and the decision to commit or not to commit a crime is reached only after rationalizing its potential to profit or injure him. The government must step in to control that urge by inflicting pain to those who go beyond the boundaries of the law.
33. Bars and similar establishments that serve alcohol are often targeted by motivated offenders because drunken people are seen as unable to defend themselves and, therefore, can easily be victimized. Such locations are ‘hot spots’ that generate suitable targets aggravated by the lack of guardianship, according to the routine activities theory. Location holds very significant symbolism for this theory because it usually gives inkling as to when crimes are usually committed. In such locations, the three elements of the theory usually converge, which makes the commission of the crime easy for the motivated offender.
34. According to the routine activities theory, there are three factors that when coming together generates the highest rate of crime and victimization. These factors are a motivated offender, suitable targets and lack of guardianship. A motivated offender is a person who is susceptible to committing a crime. An example of this are gang members, although there are other motivated offenders who strike on their own as individuals. A suitable target may be a person, a property or an entity, who or that have value in the eyes of the potential offender. Lastly, lack of guardianship refers to lack of security or the absence of any mechanism that could serve as obstacle to the commission of a crime. An example of a scenario where there is a convergence of these factors is an open car parked along an ill lighted and empty street on a dark night with no visible police patrolling. The appropriate policy recommended by routine activities theorists is for the authorities to reduce the attractiveness of certain places in the eyes of motivated offenders. This entails reinforcing guardianship or police presence in areas that are usually targeted by them.
35. Adoption study researchers found that genetics significantly influences criminal behavior. In these studies, the criminal records of adopted children were compared to those of their biological and adoptive parents. The biological parents represented the genetics influence side, while the adoptive parents the environment impact side. The studies concluded that the biological parents, particularly their propensity for criminal behavior, have more impact or influence on the criminal behavior of the children that the adoptive parents. It can be inferred from these studies that genetics matter more than environmental influences when it comes to criminal behavior. Nonetheless, the environment also plays a role in the formation of criminal behavior as can be seen from the adoption studies where adoptive parents with criminal records also have adoptive with criminal records. When compared, however, children with biological parents that have criminal records are more likely to have criminal records than those with adoptive parents that have criminal records.
36. Strain theory locates the cause of criminality on forces outside the individuals and the pressure they put on the latter compelling then to commit a crime. Merton believed, for example, that the inability of a person to achieve pecuniary success, which is considered under American culture as the pinnacle of success, forces him to go beyond the legal means to reach the desired end. The underlying reason for criminality according to Merton is, thus, the unequal playing field through which people move around with some people having the means to attain the goal and others without those means. The inability to achieve what is perceived needed to be achieved places great strain or stress on people. Because of inequality, those without means resort to extralegal means setting aside the norms of right and wrong to achieve their goal. The result is that people are less motivated by moral or ethical concerns, but more on keeping up with the rest of the world.
37. Lack of common language and shared cultural values became a problem in Chicago in the 1800s because it bred social disorganization that led to high crime rates. People did not develop a sense of communal living and the common attitude was indifference to one’s neighbors. People isolate themselves from other people because of the absence of bond. Because of the absence of communal cohesiveness there was no effective social control that could have deterred the formation of gangs and the birth of unfettered criminality.
38. The social disorganization theory, which was attributed to Shaw and McKay, is a concept that places emphasis on neighborhood quality and its ability to control crime rate within its boundaries. The theory is usually referred to the study made by Shaw and McKay on Chicago in the 1800s when the city was experiencing high migration rates. A socially disorganized neighborhood is characterized by residential mobility, mixed land use, heterogeneity and low income coupled with high unemployment. When people continuously move in and out of a neighborhood, it offers no opportunity for people to get to know each other and form a real and effective community. On the other hand, a mixed land use combines residential and commercial and such a combination presents hampers control over the area because of the presence of outsiders who come and go. Heterogeneity refers to the mixture of various races and ethnic groups living together in the same neighborhood. All these factors together create social disorganization that makes crime prevention and control doubly difficult.
39. Learning theories are distinguished from other sets of criminological theories in that it sees criminality as purely a product of social and environmental influences. Other theories, such as strain theories place the burden upon economic obstacles and control theories locate failure of self-control to attach during the early years as the most influential factor for criminality, but learning theories blame it on the early exposure of a person to the kind of environment that encourages criminal behavior. Thus, the experiences and knowledge that a person has accumulated along the way as he ages determine whether he will become a criminal or not, according to this theory.
40. The differential theory developed by Sutherland posits that criminal behavior is determined by repetitive exposure to life experiences that significantly orients a person to the techniques of crime commission, motives and attitudes toward criminality. He cited 9 elements of criminal behavior. One element is that criminal behavior is learned, which, in effect, refutes the contention of other theories that criminal behavior is inherent or is influenced primarily by genetics. Another element of the theory is that criminal behavior is learned through dealings with others. This element simply reinforces the idea that criminal behavior is acquired from a person’s interaction with other person that may have exposed him or her to criminal behavior and attitudes. Another element explains the kind of exposure that results in learning criminal behavior – that is, that the successful acquisition or learning of that behavior is due to the frequency, intensity, priority and duration. This means that the more and the longer a person is exposed to behavior that encourages criminality determines the likelihood of his criminality. Another element is that learning the behavior in intimate groups creates the most impact on the person, which means that the immediate family, close relatives or close friends tend to influence most the criminal behavior of a person. Lastly, the learning of criminal behavior follows the same process as the usual process of learning in other areas. This means that there is nothing extraordinary or different in the leaning of criminal behavior as it entails the same method as usual mode of learning, such as learning a language, the success of which is dependent on constant drill and familiarity.
