Question 1
This theory stresses the importance of learning. According to Dollard and Miller, one must want something (the drive), notice something (the cue), do something (the response), and get something (the reward), in order to learn. In other words, learning is realized through drive, cue, response, and reward. Human beings are born with a set of innate needs; the need for food, oxygen, water, and warmth, among others. These needs must be satisfied in order for the human being to remain alive. While the needs may be inherited, meeting the needs requires learning. At birth and when still young, human beings are stimulated into action by the primary drives; and the stronger the deprivation, the stronger the drive. For instance, hunger drives a child into response (crying). The stronger the hunger is, the stronger the crying, within a normal range of crying level. In addition, if a stimulus always occurs when a primary drive is in operation, then the stimulus acquires drive-related properties. The stimulus causes habit, often referred to as learned or secondary drives. Once a drive is stimulated, cues guide the actions of the individual. Cues encourage individuals to respond; determine when and where the response is best appropriate; and the type of response.
At birth, individuals make a series of organized responses, often reflexive. This is the initial response hierarchy. As people begin to learn, the initial response hierarchy is modified. Any response that reduces the drive level is referred to as reinforcing. When a response is reinforcing, the response tends to re-occur. For instance, a response that reduces hunger is most likely to be repeated. For the development of personality, learning is vital. Human beings start with a series of organized reflective responses; however, experience and reinforcements soon take control and change the order. The greater the experience and reinforcement is, the greater the change. In more specific terms, Dollard and Miller's Stimulus-Response theory postulates that personality is based on an individual’s most recent learning experiences. Individuals change from time to time, and their personality is composed of the behaviors learned as a result of the associations between drives, proper cues, and responses. People differ in personality because of the difference in their prior experiences. Besides, personality is expected to change with the future experiences.
I believe the Stimulus-Response theory best explains the behavior of individuals. Most behaviors, I believe, are not inborn, but rather, developed by means of habits. Teaching imparts virtue, and every child who is taught, including the bad ones, becomes better than those that have never been taught. A behavior develops through learning. As people grow, the influence of the environment results into the development of several secondary drives that modify the behavior. The drives such as shame, anxiety, or the desire to be good, often dictate most of human reactions. Dollard and Miller's theory argues that, for learning behavior to take place, there should be drive for something, the cue, the response, and the reward. When the response results into a positive reward, then it’s reinforcing, and a behavior is developed. Consider a situation where an infant is hungry or needs attention and the child respond by crying. If the child is given food or the needed attention, then, it’s most likely that the child will respond similarly in future similar circumstances. If the reward is positive (reinforce), such as self satisfaction or praises; then the response is likely to be repeated in future similar situations and it becomes a behavior. If the reward is negative, such as shame, embarrassments, punishments, dissatisfaction, and injuries; then the response is most likely not to be repeated in future. I believe this is what shapes the behavior of individuals.
Question 2
Personality is mostly used to refer to the obvious features of an individual. Every individual is unique and has unique features that are enduring and occur consistently. According to Freud, personality is developed from the id, the ego and the superego. The id represents the most basic desires of an individual, and at first, all the individual’s personal activities are directed towards satisfying the needs of the id. The id is only concerned about itself and seeks to please itself without regard to the wants, needs, and concerns of others. The ego is developed to monitor the id and direct the id’s impulsive desires. Actions of the ego are based on the rationality and awareness of the realities of the physical and social environment. Following the ego is the superego. Superego is irrational, just like the id, but is concerned entirely about the good of the society, not the self. It has no regard to the good of the individual.
With only the id and the ego, then the needs of the id would always be satisfied. With only the superego and the ego, then the needs of the superego would always be satisfied. However, most people have all the three; thus, by realistic assessment of the constraints of the real world, the ego balances the demands of the id against the demands of the superego. This is how personality is developed. The id and the superego are in conflict other the life goals, though mediated by the ego. There is neither too much satisfaction nor too much frustration at any stage of development of personality. However, if the reverse is true, or if the development of personality is arrested, then severe personality problems emerge in later life. A child’s personality may fail to develop properly if the parents are too dominant. A similar situation can be witnessed if the parents are too indulgent.
In explaining human personality, Rogers and Maslow believed that in order to understand a person, it is important to analyze not the environment or the person’s actions in it, but how the person perceives both the environment and his/her role in it.
In his theory, Carl Rogers argues that behavior is a goal-directed effort of an organism to meet its needs as perceived. Phenomenal field, from a person’s point of view, is a collection of everything that could be experienced. When an individual grows from infancy to adulthood, he/she gains experience, normally referred to as the self. From an individual’s view point, the self is made up of all the things the individual knows about himself/herself and his/her interactions with the environment and the people within that environment. Besides, there is an ideal self which describes what the individual would like to become. In every individual, there is need (inherent urge) for self-actualization (the tendency to develop and utilize all the self potentials). This is a single goal which every individual strives towards. If an individual feels good when doing (or thinking about) something, then the activity is good and should be done. The problem is that the naïve uses this to justify their engagement in almost everything.
Rogers’ theory also highlights the concept of acceptance (unconditional positive regard). Individuals seek acceptance, love, and warmth from the valued people in their lives. Humans need positive regard from the self and from those around them. For instance, if an individual feels hatred or anger towards a friend, then its existence is denied. In other words, people learn to seek positive regard (acceptance) by doing things that result in praise. Once achieved, self-regard is improved.
According to Maslow, humans do not reach a state where they have no needs. If they do, then it’s just for a very short time. Maslow’s theory proposes a hierarchy of needs. The more basic needs are satisfied first before advancing to the higher-level needs. These include the fundamental needs (such as physiological needs and safety needs); psychological needs (such as esteem needs and love needs); and self-actualization needs. The metaneeds include goodness, unity, justice, order, among others. At any given time, at least one of the metaneeds must be in operation to enrich the individual and the world.
