Great Mosque of Damascus or the Umayyad Mosque
The Great Mosque of Damascus is located in Syria and is known to be one of the most important shrines of Islam. In fact it is probably the largest mosque in the world as well as being the oldest having been built on a site where there was a Christian church dedicated to St John the Baptist whose head is also said to be buried there.
The mosque was built in the year 634 and has undertaken several changes and modifications ever since. The tomb of the great Caliph Saladin is also located close by next to the Northern walls of the mosque.
The mosque came into being after it was commissioned by the caliph al Wayid in 705 AD after Damascus had been selected to become the Islamic capital of the world. Although a Christian cathedral still lay on the site, this was demolished to make way for the Umayyad Mosque which ended up being an immense sprawling complex including vast prayer rooms and other notable architectural features. There was considerable protest by the Christians at this usurpation of such an important religious landmark but the caliph placated them by ordering that all churches which had been confiscated after the conquest of Damascus for Muslim use be returned for the use of Christian worshippers. The caliph Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik eventually completed the mosque in the year 715.
Historical evidence shows us that the construction of the mosque was a considerable and massive undertaking. It was recorded that almost one million dinars were spent to complete it and the labour force numbered some twelve thousand souls, a massive number even for that time. The nationalities of the workers were varied but included Greek, Indian and Moroccan stone masons and labourers as well as Coptic craftsmen for the more delicate jobs.
The Umayadd dynasty ended in 750 and eventually the Abbasid dynasty decided to move the Muslim capital to Baghdad. Thus the Umayadd Mosuqe began to decline in importance although it was still very highly regarded by the new rulers and although most of the architecture from the previous dynasty was gone, they continued embellishing the mosque. Amongst the major additions during the era one may note the beautiful Clock Dome which was completed by the governor of Damascus, al-Fadl ibn Salih ibn Ali in the year 780. Another beautifully designed dome was added to the mosque in 789 which was named the ‘Dome of the Treasury’. The Northern Minraet was constructed in 1813 which eventually saw the removal of anything to do with the original Umayyad dynasty from the mosque.
The mosque continued to gain additions such as an enormous clock in the early 10th century however the influence of the Abbasid dynasty was already coming to an end by that time. However although no significant architectural improvements took place in the two decades up to the twelfth century AD, the mosque was an important focal point for the rise of Sunni intellectualism. This was seen as an important rivalry to the Egyptian Fatimid Dynasty who had been ruling Damascus for over a century. This tension came to a head when the inhabitants of Damascus revolted against Fatimid rule and attacked the Berber garrison stationed in the city in 1069 with large parts of the mosque destroyed by fire.
Dome of the Treasury
Damascus passed under the Seljuk Turks in 1078 who on their part restored the Caliphate of Abbasid. An extensive rebuilding programme was then undertaken to repair and restore the damage caused by the 1069 fire with a huge and spectacular dome constructed as well as a complete redesign of the fabled mosaics on the Northern Wall which had been largely destroyed. Further improvements were carried out by the Seljuk king Toghtekin in 1110 with several panels dedicated to him. The mosque was also an important rallying point for Muslims during the crusades and several exhortations were made by the Imams to defend the city of Damascus to the last. In fact the phrase ‘jihad’ or Holy War was largely coined during this era. A major battle took place outside Damascus in 1148 as the city’s residents faced up to the Crusader army with the latter fleeing in terror.
A contemporary inscription by Muhammad al Idrisi in 1154 describing the incredibly beauty of the mosque shows us the elaborate designs and stupendous architectural feature which made it one of the most important mosques in the world:
“In Damascus there is a mosque that has no equal in the world, not one with such fine proportion, nor one so solidly constructed, nor one vaulted so securely, nor one more marvellously laid out, nor one so admirably decorated in gold mosaics and diverse designs, with enamelled tiles and polished marbles”.
Other architectural additions followed and these included a water clock called the Jayrun Water Clock which was built on the order of Nur ad-Din Zangi. This clock was considered as one of the wonders of the world for its time but was eventually destroyed by the late 14th century. Further damge to the mosque occurred in 1167 and 1173 mostly by fire but the conflicts between princes of the Ayyubid dynasty further exacerbated the damage in the city. The mosque lost an important minaret during that period which was called the Minaret of Jesus. However the mosque remained a centre for religious studies and continued flourishing under the Ayyubids.
Damascus was captured by a combined force of Mongols and Crusaders in 1260 ending the Ayyubid dynasty. After a short period of Christian worship in the mosque, the Mamluks managed to recapture the city later in the year. The sultan Baibars ordered an extensive rebuilding and refurbishing of the mosque which had suffered considerable damage. These works which allegedly cost the Sultan a massive sum exceeding 20,000 dinars included a huge mosaic which was no less than 113 feet long and 24 feet wide. This mosaic was an important influence on other architectural examples which were built in Syria and Egypt under the Mamluk aegis.
A holy war in 1285 dealt considerable damage to the Umayyad Mosque once again. The Mongols led by Ghazan then invaded Damascus in 1300 with the famed imam Ibn Taymiyya preaching jihad to force the Mongols out. The Maluks resisted the Mongols and also burnt the catapults which were to be used to attack the city before these were put into the mosque thus saving the building from considerable damage.
The Mamluk dynasty continued improving the mosque and in 1326, Tankiz carried out extensive restoration work when he ordered the rebuilding of the mosaics which had been situated on the gibla wall. The tiles in the prayer hall were also replaced. The sultan Bab al-Zidayeh also carried out major reconstruction works such as the demolishing of the gibla wall which had become unstable as well as moving one of the most important gates to the East. Several critics and historians have commented that the attention given to the Damascus mosque was unparalleled in the history of Muslim civilisation reinforcing the importance that this mosque has in Islam’s consciousness.
However the Uyyamad Mosque seemed jinxed since it suffered considerable damage only a few years later when it was almost completely destroyed by fire in 1339. Still the mosque was once again repaired largely through the efforts of the fabled astronomer Ibn al-Shatir who was also the chief muezzin (religious timekeeper) at the mosque between 1332 and 1376. One of his most notable contributions to the mosque’s architecture was the construction of a huge sundial on the northern minaret in 1371. The Minaret of Jesus unfortunately suffered an all too common fate when it burnt down in 1392. This was followed by even greater damage when the city of Damascus was sacked in 1400 and the mosque suffered severe damage and was almost completely destroyed. Amongst the most severe losses were the collapse of the magnificent central dome as well as the Eastern minaret. Another important addition to the mosque came in 1488 when the sultan Qaitbay erected a minaret on the southwestern portion of the wall.
The rule of the city of Damascus passed under the Ottoman Empire with its first emperor Selim I also attending the First Friday prayers in person at the Umayyad Mosque. The mosque emerged as an important building and central authority was vested in it. A large number of people from different social backgrounds were employed in the mosque and it also enjoyed a resurgence in the form of rebuilding and reconstruction particularly by the governor of Damascus, Janbirdi al-Ghazli who also embarked on a considerable reconstruction programme in the main city.
After enjoying a relative period of peace and prosperity under the Ottoman’s, the Umayyad Mosque was once again the victim of a catastrophe when it suffered grave damage by fire in 1893. The mosque was fully restored a few years later with the original structure kept intact. Apparently the incident was an accident when one of the workers who had been doing some work on the prayer hall smoked a water pipe and accidentally set fire to the wall fabrics.
Further restorations of the mosque took place when Syria was occupied by the French between 1929 and 1954. Other works were carried out by the Syrian Republic government in 1954 and 1963 demonstrating the importance of the mosque to the local Muslim consciousness.
A large scale renovation of the Umayyad Mosque was also undertaken by the Syrian government between the 1980’s and 1990’s. This restoration focused on the symbolism of the mosque and unfortunately ruined most of the historical treasures of the mosque. An important occasion occurred when Pope John Paul II visited the mosque in 2001 to see the relic of St
Shrine of St John the Baptist
John the Baptist. This historic occasion was the first time a pontiff visited a Muslim mosque.
The mosque has also become a symbol for the Syrian revolution since the first protests started at the Umayyad Mosque when a few protestors began clamouring for democratic reforms on 15 March 2011.
Architecture of the Umayyad Mosque
The Umayyad mosque is rectangular and measures 318 feet by 512 fee. The main focus of the mosque is its large courtyard which takes up most of the Northern part of the complex. This is surrounded by four walls which have undergone extensive restoration work and are now consonant with the design prevalent in the Umayyad era. Some changes had to be made after the 1759 earthquake where a number of piers were removed and the columns have been reduced. Particular aspects of the mosque are its arcades which are elaborately designed and original in their structures.
Another feature of the mosque is the structure of its arcades. These are positioned in a way to point in a parallel direction to Mecca which is located in Saudi Arabia. The first level of arcades is made up of arches which are semi-circular in shape whilst the second level is made up of arches which are double levelled. An interesting feature is that the three arcades which are located in the interior of the mosque meet at the sanctuary centre at an arcade which is far larger and much higher and which faces the wall of prayer. The prayer sanctuary is quite large and measures 446 feet by 121 feet and is practically the Southern part of the mosque complex. Four mihrabs are strategically located on the walls of the sanctuary at the rear of it. There are also a number of domes but the most impressive one is the ‘Dome of the Eagle. This was originally made from wood but after the fire of 1893 it was rebuilt in stone. The dome is a massive 118 feet high and is supported by a structure which is octagonal in shape. The dome resembles an eagle in its design.
The Minaret of the Bride
The minarets are also an important composition of the mosque’s architectural features. They are the Minaret of the Bride, the Minaret of Jesus and the Minaret of Qaitbay. The first minaret has evolved over the ages and it is not known when it was actually constructed for the first time. The bottom section of the minaret probably comes from the Abbasid era whilst the upper part was built in 1174. There are 160 steps in the form of a spiral staircase which the muezzin climbs up to intone his prayers.
The Minaret of Jesus is 255 feet high and is the tallest of all three. It was allegedly built by the Umayyadas but its original structure dates to the mid 1200’s when it was constructed by the Ayyubids. This is an important minaret in Islam since Jesus will allegedly return for the Day of Judgement through this minaret.
The Minaret of Qaitbay is smaller and dates from 1488 having been built by the Mamluks. It is octagonal and differs from the other two since it recedes with galleries at its forefront.
The mosque has kept more or less the same architectural structure ever since it was constructed over 1200 years ago
The art historian, Finnbar Barry Flood emphasises the importance of this mosque in Muslim architectural building
"The construction of the Damascus mosque not only irrevocably altered the urban landscape of the city, inscribing upon it a permanent affirmation of Muslim hegemony, but by giving the Syrian congregational mosque its definitive form it also transformed the subsequent history of the mosque in general."
Works Cited:
Burns, Ross (2005), Damascus: A History, London: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-27105-3.
Calcani, Giuliana; Abdulkarim, Maamoun (2003). Apollodorus of Damascus and Trajan's Column: from tradition to project. L'Erma di Bretschneider. ISBN 88-8265-233-5.
Dumper, Michael; Stanley, Bruce E. (2007). Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-57607-919-8.
Charette, François (2003), Mathematical instrumentation in fourteenth-century Egypt and Syria: the illustrated treatise of Najm al-Dīn al-Mīṣrī, BRILL, ISBN 978-90-04-13015-9
Finkel, Caroline (2005), Osman's dream: the story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1923, Basic Books,ISBN 0-465-02396-7.
Flood, Finbarr Barry (2001). The Great Mosque of Damascus: studies on the makings of an Umayyad visual culture. Boston: BRILL. ISBN 90-04-11638-9.
Illustrations:
- Dome of the Clock
- Dome of the Treasury
- Shrine of St John the Baptist
- The Minaret of the Bride
- The Minaret of Jesus
