Question 1: Rivalries
Mao Zedong, Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping were all leaders in the Chinese government and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Prior to 1949 everyone generally followed Mao’s lead in setting policy. But Liu and Deng began to resist Mao’s ideas and power following the establishment of the People’s Republic of China. Whereas Mao believed that the CCP and government should remain focused on revolutionary agitation, public mobilization, collectivization and leadership appeal to advance the country; Liu and Deng believed that the country’s focus should be less on the personality of the leaders and revolution and more one reforming the economy so that it could power development and modernization (Spence, 2012). The struggle in the CCP and government between those loyal to Mao and those loyal to Liu and Deng lasted from 1952 to 1966. The rivalry led to a deepening struggle in the CCP and government over who would rule and how China would modernize. Accordingly, the effectiveness of leadership constantly hindered. Eventually Mao launched the Great Proletariat Cultural Revolution to eliminate any opposition from Liu and Deng, plunging China into a decade of chaos, isolation and domestic struggle that it is still trying to overcome.
Konoe Fumimaro was the prime minister of Japan from 1940 to1941 In 1940 he asked General Hideki Tojo to join his cabinet as the Minister of War. Although, Tojo was technically subordinate to Konoe, his backing by the Japanese army gave him considerable influence and authority over Konoe as illustrated in relations with the U.S. (Gordon, 2013). As it seemed more and more likely that a conflict with the U.S. would occur over Japanese actions in China; Konoe began negotiations with the U.S. to determine if an agreement could be made that would avoid war. Tojo, on the other hand, believed that war with the U.S. was inevitable and that Japan should strike first. In October 1941, Tojo stated that he openly opposed Konoe’s efforts at negotiations. Two days later Konoe resigned and was replaced by Tojo. Once in power Tojo ordered the acceleration of plans to attack the U.S. at Pearl Harbor. The impact of the rivalry was that it destroyed any change of a peaceful resolution of differences between Japan and the U.S.
Syngnam Rhee and Kim Il-Sung were Korean leaders following the end of World War II. Rhee was elected the leader of the Republic of Korea in the south. In the north, with the help of the Soviet Union, Kim was placed in power of the Democratic republic of Korea. While both supported a unified Korean peninsula, both had differing ideas on how best to being the two parts together (Oberdorfer, 2001). Despite negotiations between the two for reunification, once American and Soviet troops withdrew in 1949, the relations between the two sides got progressively worse. Eventually, Kim decided that he would forcefully reunify the nation via an invasion in 1950. The impact of the rivalry was that it led to one of the 20th century’s major wars and the division of a nation that continues to this day.
Question 2: Rebellions
Jiang Qing, Wang Hongwen, Yao Wenyuan and Zhang Chunqiao were all Chinese Communist Party members that supported Mao’s efforts to win back control of the party and the government during the Cultural Revolution. With the support of Mao, the four were able to achieve substantial authority, becoming one of the major political forces in the party. This included an attempt to completely take over the party by convincing Mao that other leaders were plotting to kill him (Spence, 2012). After Mao’s death however, other within the party including Mao’s successor Hua Guafeng began to reassert their authority. The four were eventually arrested in 1976 and put in trial in 1980. The impact of the “gang of four” was that their removal from power allowed the return to power of Deng Xiaoping and the beginning of the Chinese economic miracle.
Yukio Mishima was a Japanese writer who lived from 1941 to 1970. Mishima deeply believed in the superiority of Japanese culture and its people and objected to the Americanization of Japan that had taken place after World War II. In 1968 he formed a group called the Shield Society that supported the return of emperor as the ultimate political authority in Japan (Gordon, 2013). In 1970, acting on his belief, Mishima and several members of the Shield Society toke the commander of Japan’s Self-Defense Forces (SDF) hostage and demanded that SDF troops overthrow the government. When the SDF troops failed to follow his lead, Mishima committed suicide. The impact of the attempted coup was that it has provided inspiration to Japanese nationalist and right-wing supporters even to this day.
After the assassination of South Korean leader Park Chung-Hee in 1979, General Chun Doo-Hwan seized control and installed military rule. As a result South Korean citizens called for the end of military rule and a return to civilian rule. One group of people in the southern city of Kwangju was particularly aggressive in their demand which lead to confrontation with army troops (Oberdorfer, 2001). After several days of fighting, the citizens were able to chase the troops out and they declared their city liberated and government by citizen committee. After reinforcements arrived however, the city was recaptured by the army ending the movement. Civilian casualties were as high as 2,000 (Oberdorfer, 2001). Although the citizens lost they succeeded in showing the world the illegitimacy of the Chun Doo-Hwan’s rule as well as ignite the South Korean democracy movement.
Question 3: Regions
Wuhan is the capital of China’s Hubei Province and the largest city in central China. Divided by the Yangzi River, Wuhan is the crossroad between Chongqing in the east and Shanghai in the west, as well as Beijing in the north and Guangzhou in the south. Accordingly, Wuhan has historically been the main stop for people travelling through central China. Due to its geography Wuhan attracted substantial attention from Japan and several European nations during the 19th and 20th centuries. In 1911, Wuhan was also the location Wuhan Uprising that eventually led to the fall of the Qing Dynasty and the founding of the Republic of China (Spence, 2012). In 1927, Wuhan was also the locations of one of the Republic of China capitals (the other being Nanjing) under a pro-communist government, before forces loyal to Chiang Kai-shek attacked and killed thousands of communists in and around city (Spence, 2012).
Nagasaki is the namesake and capital city of Nagasaki Prefecture on Japan’s southwest island of Kyushu. The city lies at the southern tip of the island facing Korea and China. It is at the head of the Nagasaki Bay and the Pushang River runs through it. Due to its geography, Nagasaki was historically the first port of arrival for visitors from east and south Asia and Europe. Accordingly, it was one of Japan’s more cosmopolitan cities. In the late 1800s, Nagasaki became home to the Imperial Japanese Navy. Most importantly, however, Nagasaki was the target of the second atomic bomb that U.S. forces dropped on Japan, killing upwards to 80,000 people. Within days of the bombing, Japan surrendered.
The Yalu River is located in northeast Asia and forms nearly 500 miles of the border between China and North Korea. Its source is Heaven Lake in Changbai Mountain and it flows in a southwesterly direction before entering into the Korean Bay. Because of its geography as a natural barrier between China and the Korean peninsula, the Yalu River has been the site of several important battles including the Battle of the Yalu River in 1894 that resulted in the defeat of the Qing Dynasty fleet to the Imperial Japanese Navy signifying the rise of Japan as a regional power (Gordon, 2013). Most recently, the advance of American troops towards the Yalu River in 1950, prompted Mao Zedong to send Chinese army units into Korea to support Kim Il-Song. Chinese troops helped repel American forces prolonging the war and ending in the separation of the north and south.
Essay 1: Significant Event or Person
One of the most, if not the significant event in modern Chinese history was the founding of the People’s Republic of China on October 1, 1949. In addition the considerable political in-fighting within the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), it also was successful in raising the education level, health, and prosperity of what had been one of the world’s least developed countries. Although much time was spent on taking complete control over almost every aspect through which a government can exercise its authority, the CCP also implemented land reform, increased economic production and stream-lined the government and bureaucracy. Today, less than 70 years since its establishment, China stands as one of the strongest, richest and most influential nation’s in the world. Accordingly, as long as China continues its advance, the founding of the nation will most likely increase in importance.
One of the major influences for Japan’s military rise was the take-over of the government by military officials. While Japan’s armed forces had been agitating for more power and authority in the government since the late 1920s, they were not able obtain an edge against the democratically elected civilian government until May 15, 1932. On that day, a group of navy and army officers assassinated Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi at his residence (Gordon, 2013). Although the assassins were caught and put on trial, they succeeded in giving the armed forces a chance to control the government. The man charged with forming the next cabinet, Saionji Kinmochi, had close ties to the military and chose to appoint Admiral Saito Makoto as the next prime minister (Gordon, 2013). Saito’s appointment market the end of democratically elected prime ministers until after the war, and the start of the military’s eventual domination of the whole government. Once the war ended, however, the military increasing lost its influence. Accordingly, the importance of the May 15th Incident will likely remain the same,
After the ending of hostilities in Asia in 1945, while Korea was split between the control of American and Soviet forces, the common belief was that reunification would eventually occur. However, the possibility of a peaceful unification was destroyed on June 25, 1950 when troops from North Korea crossed the 38th Parallel and invaded the South. Although the fighting lasted less than three years, the effects of the fighting are still being felt and observed today. Accordingly it is the most significant event to impact the Korean peninsula. North Korea is one of the world’s least open but militarily dangerous nations. It continued to threaten violence not only against South Korea. South Korea will prosperous still most devote substantial resources in preparation of an attack from the north. The line separating the north and the south is one of the most heavily armed and tense area in the world. Until reunification occurs, the invasion by the north will remain an important event that will decrease or increase in importance depending on how each nation acts towards another.
Essay 2: Forces of Unity or Division
The main factor that is unifying modern China is the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Historically, China has never been a consistently unified state, and even today there are a number of regional, cultural and linguistic forces that could be forces of disunity if not properly handled. The CCP, however, has indeed properly handled any divisive forces by seamlessly integrating itself into almost every aspect of life and society. Most importantly, by requiring that all government personnel are party members and therefore subject to party directives, the CCP has also allowed itself to become the defining culture of the political elite. Furthermore, the CCP has supported a policy of Chinese nationalism which supports domestic unity against hostile outside forces. This nationalism touches upon such unrelated aspects as the superiority of Chinese food to the might of the Chinese armed forces.
The main factor that has historically unified Japan in regards to it place in the world has been a deep belief in Japanese exceptionalism (Gordon, 2013). That exceptionalism is related to the fact that it is an island nation. To be sure, Japan is one of the most homogenous nations in the world and this has resulted in a population and society that broadly share the same social assumptions, behaviors and customs. Naturally, when faced with a threat from outside, the tendency is to draw closest to those you know, and in Japan that is other Japanese. The Japanese exceptionalism or uniqueness is a characteristic that has existed and developed since ancient times. Moreover, it has been demonstrated throughout its history whether it’s a rejection of western idea during the period prior to the Meiji Restoration or the ultra-nationalist that helped fuel the war in Asia. As the world becomes more globalized, I expect that one of the reactions in Japan will again to draw on their exceptionalism as a way to stay united and stay Japanese.
As mentioned earlier the rivalry between Syngman Rhee and Kim Il-sung was a key element in starting the Korean War. Moreover, the differing ideologies that both men subscribed to continue to keep the two nations separated. Indeed, to this day, Rhee’s belief in the power of capitalism and a democratically elected government remains incompatible with Kim’s belief in the benefits of a communist government and the authority of the party. Furthermore, these opposing beliefs have been compounded by the death, damage and hatred that each side used against each other during the war and occasionally in the years afterward. Accordingly, as long as each nation believes that it cannot compromise its beliefs in support of reunification, North and South Korea will most likely remain separated.
Bibliography
Patricia Buckley Ebrey and Anne Walthall, East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History. Boston: Wadsworth, 2014.
Carter J. Eckert, Ki-baik Lee, Young Ick Lew, Michael Robinson and Edward W. Wagner. Korea Old and New: A History. Seoul: Harvard University Press. 1990.
Andrew Gordon, A Modern History of Japan: From Tokugawa Times to the Present. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.
Don Oberdorfer. The Two Koreas: A Contemporary History. New York: Basic Books, 1997.
Jonathan D. Spence. The Search for Modern China, 3rd ed. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2012.
