Abstract
Many scholars in the management field have spent most of their time trying to come up with theories that explain management. The work of these theorists, however, has not gone to waste as there are very many theories that have come up as a result. Management theorists have been linked to improving the quality of products and services being offered by any organization by using their creative minds in developing ideas that solve problems. For one to be well conversant and an expert in the management field, he/she must study and try to emulate the work of these theorists. By dating back to the eras of Fredrick Taylor and Henri Fayol, modern theorists have greatly borrowed from the works of their predecessors who started their work from the industrial revolution. In the recent past, the environment has been changing with time and being prone to more and more disasters such as fire, floods, etc. Theses hazards have led to the development of ‘Emergency Management Theories'. However, Drabek in his work says that there are those theorists who concentrated on concepts that are for emergency management and those others dwelt on concepts that are just relevant to managing of emergencies and disasters (Drabek, 2004). All in all, it will be only relevant for one to review some of the work put forth by theorists who aimed at emergency management and discuss them in details together with their concepts to have a clear understanding of the whole concept.
Emergency Management Theory
Introduction
Theorists have been defined as those individuals who have been coming up with ideas and those who try to understand certain phenomena and create facts and ideas that can be confirmed and proven to be practical. Emergency management have had it rough with all the recent developments in today's environment with the occurrence of catastrophic events in the recent pasts. Natural and human disasters too have been on the rise. (Farazmand, 2014). In the States, disasters such as the September eleven attack has led to the need for better means of disaster management and prevention. Despite people remaining ignorant on the emergency management field, experts have taken their time to study disaster management and put forth theories that can assist in disaster management.This comparative research will involve two theorists who first came up with concepts of emergency management, and to be specific the research will cover the work of two theorists; management and collaborative theorists. By comparing the work of the two theorists, there will be a clear understanding of how they contributed to disaster control and preparedness amongst the managers in an organization. In addition, the research will touch on their development, factors that influenced their success towards developing the theories and some of the challenges that hinder their work from being used and finally their role in the management as a career. The management theorists put forth several concepts which include contingency theory, systems theory, chaos theory and finally theory X and theory Y. The theorists formed all these with an aim of supporting the wider management theory used in disaster management. The theorist behind the collaborative theory, on the other hand, dwelt much on the collaborative form of decision making towards managing and preventing of disasters and crisis.
Body
In this comparative research paper, the main discussion will be on the development of the two theorists work whereby the research will try to explain when they developed these theories. Secondly, the research will concentrate on how the two theorists work have contributed towards emergency management. Thirdly, the research will focus on their intended work and how they are to be applied towards disaster management followed by barriers towards their developments. Finally, the research will touch on the common things that the two theorists tried to put across with an aim of making them easier to apply and guarantee their success.
Contribution of the theorists in developing the theories
Peter Drucker is deemed to be the father of management theory and practice of disaster and emergency management. Drucker in his work believes in asking questions and letting things change from the answers given. Drucker dates back to the eras of the industrial revolution in early twentieth century. He came up with the management theory with an aim of governing the industrial growth in Europe and America. Being work of emergency management theorists, it aimed at countering any emergencies of natural disasters such as floods, chemical wastes, and even earthquakes. Peter Drucker suggested that experts such as engineers should be incorporated with an aim of producing a perfect means of controlling disasters. The work of emergency management theorists has over time been improved by simply advocating for proper management styles and reasonable use of the resources at the disposal of the organization for the achievement of the objectives.
Collaborative theorists, on the other hand, had a closer look at the ineffectiveness of traditional emergency and disaster management tools and the need to have better means of controlling and preventing disasters. This called for a more decentralized management system triggering the emergence of collaborative management theory. The theorist in this work recommends collaborative decision making as it involves coordination and collaboration of the available resources and skills towards tabling the best solution to emergencies and disasters arising in an organization.(Kamensky et al., 2004).
Contribution of the theorists towards emergency management theory
Peter Drucker insisted that management theory serves as a tool in improving the quality of product and services in an organization. Management theory is a concept under emergency management theories whereby it takes into consideration any emerging issues and respond immediately to solving them. To make management theory effective, Drucker considered other theories which include, contingency theory, chaos theory, and systems theory which acts as backups for the management theory. Peter on his side had his reasons as follows;
Systems theory dwells on how well systems are coordinated in an organization. It states that different parts form one whole. This means that a system comprises a subsystem. The manager ensures that the relationship between workers and the systems is working well towards countering of any emerging issues. For example, systems such as fire and emergency agencies are always on toes towards any emerging disasters like fire outbreaks, etc. However, systems theory may not have a solution to every emerging hazard, but it provides managers with an understanding of how to prepare and react to any disasters and hence minimize their impacts.
Contingency theory emphasizes that a manager finds a solution to an existing problem rather than generalizing issues and finding solutions to them all. It emphasizes that management practices apply to situations as they occur. Different occurrences are of a different kind, and they need responses connected to their considerations. In relation to emergency management, contingency theory ensures that any changes in the environment must be able to control any disasters and hazards that the organization faces.
Chaos theory states that change is unavoidable and is hard to control. A minor change now can cause major changes in the long run. Managers should be aware of any minor negative changes as they may cause disaster in future. Finally, theory X and theory Y whereby theory X considers workers as ‘push objects’ that is, for them to work well they must be pushed whereas theory Y considers workers as self-driven and can work under minimal supervision. The managers, therefore, knows well that theory Y management style would be the best in countering any emergencies. Drucker, in this work aimed at giving the best strategies that would be appropriate to all sectors and that would produce the best results towards managing an organization together with its environment.
The scholars in the collaborative theory back up the collaborative style of decision-making which involves combining any available resources and management tools to achieve a certain goal. Agranoff in his work says that collaborative style of decision-making involves bringing together different skills from different departments in an organization that ensures the formation of one strong force that gives solutions to any emergencies or disasters that might arise within the organization. (Agranoff, 2006). It requires one to take a step even to join hands with an enemy with an aim of fighting a common problem. People from different departments, organizations and even countries can join efforts and work together towards the achievement of a common objective. (Kamensky et al., 2004). Unlike Drucker, the theorist here believes in combining agencies that would best solve a problem other than asking questions that would have answers that would lead to solutions.
The scholars of this theory have had quite a large market share since their work have been greatly considered as a big step in the field of disaster management, their contribution towards disaster management has been discussed in different perspectives. Firstly, communication. It is evident that in any decision-making stage, communication is a key factor as it is involved in the exchange of ideas in deciding on a certain issue. Communication, therefore, has been emphasized most by the theorist in this sector as a special tool for collaborative decision making since it is responsible for the transfer of any information regarding emergencies and disasters. Secondly, information relevance. The relevance of information communicated has been considered as being crucial in collaborative theory. Different sectors will have different information, but once they come together, they can derive a common strategy towards disaster control. Finally, the scholars put it clear that the decision is made by all the participants hence being considered as the best move to handle disasters and emergencies. Collaborative decision making was put into test by Emergency Management Assistance Compact’s (EMAC) in catastrophic events Hurricanes Katrina and Rita in 2005.
Application of the theorists work.
Under management theorists, Drucker's work has found favor in chaos theory which has stood out to be the most appropriate and preferred method of disaster control and management. The theorists put forth two major functions connected to chaos, that is, it avoids the situation whereby the system remains unchanged even when the environment changes and also it allows the system to understand a range of behaviors available to them. One method of controlling chaos is by changing its parameters; this ensures that the system is always stable and sensitive when it comes to predictions. This, in turn, makes the theory swift to any changes caused by disasters. Chaos ensures that the systems are adjusting to environmental changes. This calls for proper means of communication within the organization to be at par with any developments and changes. Chaos also concentrates on the most vulnerable points in a system that are most prone to changes or even disasters. This will equip managers with the necessary tools of disaster management when they arise. By viewing things from a chaos point of view, one can realize and understand that the world is changing every single day, disasters are being experienced every day. Since the days of industrial revolution more and more developments have triggered human disasters more so fire outbreaks.
Kapucu and Van Wart(2006) explains why traditional means of disaster control have failed to control disasters and crisis and hence the need to revise them and try out the work of scholars in collaboration form of disaster management. In the U.S, the failure to control the 9/11 terrorist attack and the Hurricane Katrina led to the need for a more collaborative strategy in disaster management. Collaboration has been defined as any activity undertaken by more than one agency towards achieving a common goal. For example, disasters like an outbreak of Ebola disease in West Africa has led to the whole world collaborating by sending their best doctors to the most hit areas with an aim of controlling it and preventing further spread of the same. The collaboration of Homeland Security and other agencies have greatly led to control of disasters in the States about security issues. The world re-known Red Cross has collaborated with the governments in rescuing and managing disasters in the whole world.
Barriers that faced the theorists during development of their work
One major barrier that hindered the theorists from smoothly developing their work is the inability to have a clear mind of what is a disaster. Many scholars have failed to give a clear definition of the term disaster. This, in turn, has left managers not sure of the best theory to use in the context of disaster management. Since disasters have different magnitude, it is quite clear that there must be the best theory that can be used to manage it.
The theorists failure to know the disasters and crises to focus on. During their early days, the theorists found it hard to identify the disasters and crises that they were supposed to give an upper hand. Modern days have been prone to terrorist attacks that happen once in a while. Also, there are those other disasters such as fire outbreaks, theft, etc. The scholars have been left wondering on what to dwell on most since they all occur at undefined periods. The scholars, therefore, should ensure that each theory is explained fully and should suggest the hazards it can best control.
Dilemma on what phases to dwell on most. The scholars have had it difficult to identify on whether to concentrate more on the pre-disaster or post-disaster occurrence. Some disasters are almost impossible to predict and therefore leaving scholars to dwelling much on after occurrence. On the other hand, it is possible to predict on other disasters but their actual time of occurrence is not well known. This leaves the scholars wondering on the best phase to dwell on in an aim of managing and even minimizing the impact of the disaster.
The theorists failure to identify the best pattern or model to guide in the development field. Emergency management has had quite some concepts that can be used as alternatives towards disaster management, scholars have exhausted on the best possible models and patterns towards theory development and in the case of any development of theory, drawbacks might surpass its relevance towards disaster management.
Common things that the two theorists included in their work.
The two theorists put into consideration previous research regarding concepts like disasters and crises that are deemed to have happened, and also they conducted a closer look at the environment and tried to identify all the possible changes that occurred or were likely to occur. Special research on the population and economic sectors was another factor that the two theorists insisted on. This was in an aim of trying to know the most likely places that were prone to disaster occurrences.
The two theorists should have redefined the term disaster in order to create a clear picture of its true meaning in the mind of the people. This will greatly enhance the level of preparedness amongst the managers. The managers will have an understanding of the actual magnitude of the disaster and put the necessary tools together for proper management.
The two theorists should have recognized the different actors involved in disaster management. The theorists should have enacted clear guidelines of each participant and bring them together regardless of their field of work; be it, public or private sector. It is through this that the theorists work would bear more fruits and lookappealing to the eyes of the managers who happen to be the beneficiaries of this work.
Importance of the two theorists in the field of management
The two theorists compared above have been considered to have contributed immensely towards the field of management in today's organizations. First, their work has been used as a reference by students who undertake management as a course. In learning institutions, management has been offered as a course on its own and therefore it has heavily borrowed from the work of these two theorists. Secondly, organizations have applied the work of these theorists in managing their work. This is evident in the emergency management whereby collaborative style of decision-making has been in constant use all over the world. Thirdly, the work of these early theorists has kept the wheel rolling and clearing the way for the upcoming theorists who intend to develop the already existing theories. In this case, the early theorists have been mentors to the current generation theorists through their commendable work on disaster and hazards management. Finally, collaborative theorists have greatly called for the need of uniting people and working together towards fighting a common emergency. Writers have tried to explain the thought of collaborative theorists in different ways, but the bottom line remains that, coordination and cooperation of different agencies joining hands and working together strongly support international integration and cooperation hence bringing peace unity and harmony globally. Through their work, These theorists remain to be the legends in the field of management right from the era of industrial revolution up to date.
Conclusion
With the many changes in the environment today, there must be an effective use of the available resources towards emergency management. The world has evolved from the days of nuclear bombs of the Second World War to the terrorist attacks of today, major natural and human disasters have emerged as in the case of fire outbreaks, floods, earthquakes, hurricanes, tsunamis, etc. The September eleven attack on the American soil led to the development of some emergency management agencies not forgetting the development of Homeland Security. All these occurrences have led to the need for urgency in more theorists in the field of emergency and disaster management. This, in turn, has led to the introduction of the disaster management department in every organization. Posts of disaster managers have been created to ensure a smooth running of the department. However, the work of emergency management theorists has stood out to be the savior in these departments but due to the many concepts associated with their work, the research found it necessary to concentrate on only two of these theorists concepts which include the management theory and the collaborative theory. The collaborative theorists have defined their work as the joint activity of more than one agency that joins hands and work towards the improvement of the quality of good or product. Drucker on that other side of management linked his work to several other concepts of contingency, systems, and chaos theories that have been widely used to manage and prevent the impact of disasters.
The work of these two theorists has been linked to some factors that have led to their success. Communication has been the most crucial tool of disaster management in both theorists work. They both insist that any information on theoccurrence or a possible occurrence of a disaster must be communicated to the entire members or people that are likely to be affected. Secondly, coordination of the different participants in the management group. This ensures uniformity when it comes to preparation, and therefore every individual is well prepared. Both theorists in management theory and collaborative theory have set their goals and objectives with the main ones being the prevention of any preventable disasters and minimizing the impact of these disasters and hazards once they occur. In many organizations, these two concepts have been put to test more frequently as the best concepts in disaster management. Drucker's work on chaos theorists has been identified as being a more preferred concept amongst the management theories. It has been on toes towards the constant environmental changes and has equipped the systems with the necessary tools of disaster management. Chaos theory has made the systems more stable and more adaptive towards any developments. Collaborative theory, on the other hand, has been put into constant use over the years by different agencies across borders. Inter and intra-organization coordination have been encouraged towards the collaborative form of decision making.
The research recommends on using the work of scholars in collaborative theory in emergency management as the best form of decision making. It has some advantages which include, improving peace and harmony amongst individuals as they interact and help each other in problem-solving. It increases economic integration amongst nations as they come together towards fighting a common enemy like terrorism activities, Collaboration enhances passage of skills and knowledge as individuals with different skills come together during disaster management. Collaboration enhances a global participation in decision making as in the case of the G-20. However, disaster management has proven to be too expensive since some disasters cause almost one hundred percent damage once they occur. All in all, research must be conducted with an aim of trying to have the best disaster management theories that can give assurance of protection once a disaster occurs. This research sets the stage for more and more research in the field of emergency management. The stage is open for new ideas and innovations towards improving the work of the earlier theorists with an aim of fighting the latest developments in the environment.
References
Drabek, T. (2004). Social Dimensions of disaster (2nd ed.). Maryland: Emmitsburg
Farazmand, A. (2014). Crises and Emergency management: Theory and Practice (2nd ed., pg 849). Florida: CRC Press
Kamensky, M. (2004). Collaboration: Using Networks and Partnerships. New York: Rowman and Littlefield.
Kapucu, N. (2006). The evolving role of the public sector in managing catastrophic disasters. Administration And Society, 38, 279-308.
