Introduction
Over the decades, the United States of America has been an egalitarian human society that has dedicated its resources to the eradication of women inequality and racism (Katz & Moore, 2004). Besides, it has formulated numerous legislations to push for equality for women, emancipation of slaves, and civil rights movements that aimed to promote equal treatments of the American Society (Katz & Moore, 2004). Despite these tremendous steps, racism and gender discrimination in the workplace still continues to be prevalent. In particular, women and minority groups like African-American have been the main target of this discrimination. The discrimination takes various forms and has resulted in varying effects on the society. Discrimination refers to the unjust and unfair treatment based on color. Essentially, racial discrimination has been manifested widely due to a large number of immigrants in the U.S over the centuries.
Nevertheless, through the enactment of effective affirmative action by the U.S. Supreme Court, positive effects have been realized in the eradication of these vices in the society. Affirmative action entails the application of programs and policies that encourage fairness and equal opportunities for all people based purely on their qualifications.
This paper critically analyzes various aspects of women and racial discrimination in the society. Primarily, the paper discusses the manifestation of these forms of discrimination in the society. Next, the paper analyzes the overt and covert objectives relating to gender and racial discrimination. Additionally, it discusses the application of Affirmative action as an effective remedy that will fight the current manifestation of women and racial discrimination in the society. The importance of affirmative action approaches will precisely be analyzed. The last section of this paper formulates the role of individuals and society in responding to racial and women discrimination. This section explains various recommendations to respond to discrimination.
Concepts of Manifestation of Women Discrimination in Rural and Small Town Communities
• Wage Gap
Women discrimination in the workforce exists in different ways; the wage gap is one of the common forms of women discrimination. Essentially, it entails the inequality that exists between the salary and benefits paid to both male and female employees in the workplace (Baker et al., 2009). While policies have been imposed to ensure equal pay and employment in the U.S, a large gap still exists, especially when compared to other industrialized countries. Reports from the U.S Bureau of Labor Statistics has revealed that women operating at the same numbers of hours as men get compensated at an income that only amount to 84.6% (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2000). Using this data, it is evident that a wide gap still exists. More surprisingly, female workers usually work for longer hours compared to men.
• Sexual Harassment
Sexual harassment has been among the prominent forms of gender discrimination, under the Civil Rights Act of 1964. This act can manifest in the form of unwilling verbal and physical behavior of a sexual nature. Sexual harassment is more about expressing domination and control rather than about sexual satisfaction (McLaughlin, 2009). Nevertheless, the United States Equal Employment Opportunity Commission points that this form of harassment may only be regarded as discrimination when it implicitly affects the women work performance, or if it results in an intimidating and offensive working conditions.
• Pregnancy Discrimination
Pregnancy Discrimination is a complex form of discrimination that affects the social and economic life of every woman. According to the Federal Equal Employment Opportunity, cases of pregnancy discrimination reflect one of the major complaints. This discrimination is common in the employment process. The hiring organizations assume that hiring a pregnant woman would result in reduced productivity, and high costs as the company are obliged to find new temporary employees to fill the duties. Even after introducing the first law on Pregnancy Discrimination Act (PDA), the biased employment attitudes toward pregnant women in the marketplace is still manifested. As a result of the pregnancy discrimination, women have a reduced chance of getting employed, getting equal compensation, becoming promoted as compared to men.
Concepts of Manifestation of Racial Discrimination in Rural and Small Town Communities
Racial discrimination entails any form of distinction, restriction, exclusion or preference that is based on race, color, or ethnic origin. This kind of discrimination aims to deny the recognition and enjoyment of equal rights and various fundamental liberties in the social-cultural, economic, and political aspect of life. The phenomenon of affirmative action denial is experienced in the acknowledgment of the discrimination, and a failure to constitute efficient measures to eliminate and entire prevent the problem. In many states, judicial and police institutions provide less protection to African- American and even punish them more harshly. For instance, in a study conducted by U.N Economic Council for Latin America, most Latin Americans do not have security to their job.
Racial discrimination is also manifested in the Job market, emanating from the inequities found in the education sector. Thus, few afro-Latin Americans get positions of leaderships. Besides, the distribution of income is inequitably made. Blacks suffer in abject poverty and usually attend to poor quality schools. They have a difficult time gaining access to or even making progress in education. Even so, there are strong aspects of social, political and academic classes who deny the existence of racial discrimination. These classes tend to explain these differences as a concept of other factors and variables and not as a result of race or ethnic origin.
The Overt and Covert Objectives on Gender and Racial Discrimination
Women and racial discrimination may take place through overt (intentional) means, or through covert (unintentional/subtle) means. Normally, overt discrimination exists in an intentional manner, usually based on stated beliefs. On the other hand, covert discrimination takes a subtle form; it exists as an unconscious or hidden beliefs. Notably, racial discrimination tends to be practiced under overt aspects while women discrimination is reflected in covert aspects.
Racial Overt and Covert Objectives
Legalism
Legalistic and diplomatic language is applied to overt the practice of discriminatory practices. Legal defenses have been used to deny the charges of racism. For instance, a legalistic argument has been used to affirm that racial discrimination does not exist since no laws of discrimination or segregation have been established as it appears in other regions (Ariel, 1988). Under this implication, it appears that discrimination is manifested only when it is established under the laws and not when laws are enforced in a discriminatory manner. Nevertheless, international laws recommend for the adoption of essential rules that support the enforcement of non-discriminatory laws that ensure prevention or elimination of discriminating practices in any form, be it laws or actions.
Denial of Responsibility
Quite often, the governments fail to accept their responsibility for any form of racial discrimination even when they are aware that practices exist in the society. The argument is that though some aspects of discrimination occur, some practices are as a result of social practices that are deeply rooted in the social practices; thus, the government cannot control such practices.
• Euphemisms
Euphemism expression is one of the overt objectives used to disguise the manifestation of racial discrimination. In essence, euphemism is applied to confer a measure of concern and respectability to the problem, or even create an aspect of neutrality in the face of discriminatory acts as the issue is brought to the public (Ariel, 1988).
Normally, the most common form of euphemism is to deny that racism exists and poverty is used to attribute the difference. This means that the expression of discrimination does not occur because people are either black or indigenous, but because they are poor. Thus, economic underdevelopment in various regions of the population is applied to overt the real intention of the discrimination. This would make the public believe that any manifestation of racial discrimination occurs as a result of social-economic aspects and not racial prejudices
Just Isolated Incidents
Many times, governments tend to prove that racial discrimination is not manifested by stating that the courts receive very few cases or complaints of racial discrimination. At times, the government accepts the existence of cases of discrimination but affirms that such cases are not systematic, routine and does not reflect a pattern of similar behavior (Ariel, 1988). However, this argument does not accommodate important aspects of whether the discriminated groups are much aware of the existing legal avenues to express their concerns; whether those laws are efficient or even whether courts apply the anti-discriminatory laws effectively.
Overt and Covert Objectives on Women Discrimination
Patriarchy
The manifestation of inequalities faced by women in the workplace reflects a patriarchal society. This form of society exists where men have been perceived as the central authoritative figure. Patriarchy has been used to reveal the autocratic rule of the father; it has been used to define the society where men hold positions of leadership. This overwhelming and authoritative control of men in the society has greatly created avenues for inequalities between men and women. Patriarchy creates unjust systems in the society that are oppressive to women. Apparently, sociologists have created predominantly biological explanations that have led to the establishment of male and gender roles. Men have been seen as power beings who should remain in powerful positions. Thus, women have not yet proved to be competent and able enough, whether as employee and managers in the workplace.
Social-Cultural Inclinations
The cultures and beliefs of the society have contributed significantly in victimizing women. Such beliefs are inclined towards religious values, the way of life, nature of knowledge and the role of women in the family. Under this society context, women are perceived as emotional and weak creatures thus cannot compete equally with men. These discriminating qualities have been inculcated in our society, which makes it right to oppress women even when these actions are ethically unacceptable.
Social-Perspectives
Gender issue that relates to women discrimination in the organization has become a major sociological concern faced by almost every business entity and organization. When their roles are assessed from the sociological perspective, the aspect of perceived roles of women in the society is manifested. This relates to the cultural stereotypes of occupation that women are presumed to occupy. Naturally, women are seen as compassionate beings who assume their occupation by pursuing careers that are low paying compared to those careers pursued by men.
According to the Expectations States theory, hiring managers and employers takes into consideration some typical traits in both men and women. Certain features such as authority and competence are always associated with higher level of status. Notably, societal beliefs and perceptions have made us relates such jobs with men (Caroll & Ridgeway, 2003). These social and cultural stereotypes are inculcated since early childhood and thus become implanted in the way they behave. The beliefs are embedded in the lives of the child and subconsciously influence their career choices.
Benefits of Affirmative Actions to Women, Minority Groups, Organizations and Society
The implementation of affirmative both the action policies and programs have played crucial roles for women and the minority groups in accessing equal opportunities in employment, leadership and education (Lovell, 1974). In employment, affirmative action prevents the negative impact of gender and racial discrimination. It includes programs and efforts that aim to include women in making of crucial decisions; it includes training programs that give all the employees equal and fair chances in job promotion despite gender and racial inclinations (Barbara, 1996).
In education, affirmative policies would include graduate fellowship programs, grants, and equal opportunities that allow women and minority groups to pursue fields that are dominated by male and whites respectively. Affirmative action that promotes scholarship and enrollment programs of women and minority groups achieve significant results (Green, 1976). For instance, in the medical field, advancement of women has expanded research in serious diseases such as breast cancer. Also, women and minority doctors have enhanced treatments of the disadvantaged patients in the society (Tesch, 1995).
Though the society has discriminated women and minority groups, they have made tremendous achievements in education and employment positions. Affirmative action creates a large pool of diverse workforce that incorporates these qualified minority and women in the organization; a diverse workforce is directly linked improved performance and productivity. Therefore, it is surprising that companies have increasingly supported the incorporation of affirmative action.
In a business environment, affirmative action policies incorporate essential rules that allow various government institutions to extend financial assistance as well as creating favorable environment irrespective of gender and race. Equally important, affirmative action impacts significantly to the organizations’ productivity as well as in the entire society. Besides, the level of employee satisfaction is greatly improved in such non-discriminatory conditions; this, in turn, promotes productivity of the employee, which leads to organization productivity (Blau & Kahn, 1994)
Affirmative action policies help to empower women in the society; indeed, women are recognized as a source of support for their families. Thus, their economic empowerment is crucial to their family and the society. Besides, communities have benefited from affirmative action in other ways. For instance, in research that viewed the misconduct of police, it was revealed that employment women police officers in police posts and judicial systems contribute to reducing incidences and cases of police harassment and violence. Besides, it enhances the handling of cases rated to domestic violence by promoting the enactment of domestic violence laws. Such activities create peaceful and harmonious families and society free from violence and other related vices.
Role of Individuals and Society in Responding to Racial and Women Discrimination/ Recommendations
Lately, numerous concerns emanating from gender and ethnic dimensions have been raised. It is important to acknowledge that eradicating racial and women discrimination will require the effort of every member of the society both at the individual as well as institutional level. At the individual level, changes in perceptions and attitudes should be cultivated; such changes will enhance society transformations by eliminating the social-cultural and political beliefs that lead to discrimination.
• Investigation Policies
Investigation policies should be formulated to assess various grievances relating to victimization or sexual harassment on the basis of race or gender. Policy Grievance Procedure can be conducted to maintain confidentiality and act promptly in eliminating such oppressing actions.
• Impose Disciplinary Action
The society can impose disciplinary actions to those implicated with victimization and harassment in education and employment institutions. Such disciplinary actions would involve counseling or termination from job or expulsion from college. In essence, these disciplinary actions would condemn cases of actions including instances of verbal harassment or abuse, denying the targeted group rights to equality, dignity, and security.
• Implementation of Complementary Programs
It is crucial to recommend for an implementation of essential complementary policies and programs to affirmative action. Such programs would entail the use of testing programs, where identical systematic pairs of people of different genders ad races are admitted to the same job. This approach would help to point out various instances where discrimination might be practiced.
Additionally, these forms of discrimination can be greatly reduced if the future society is educated on the social-cultural and political aspects. This approach will help create awareness as well as shun those beliefs that tend to promote discrimination.
Most importantly, programs that will educate the public and ensure an accurate description of crucial human rights can be recommended. Such programs would help in clarifying any misconceptions about the affirmative policy. This approach would help eliminate the higher level of opposition to the policy based on their wrong assumptions.
Conclusion
Consequences of gender and racial discrimination are very clear; this discrimination reduces the morale of the employees significantly. The discrimination affects the behavior of employee that correlates to job performance by reducing job satisfaction, commitment, and employee behavior. Most importantly, women discrimination impacts negatively on their children as well. Unfair treatment affects the overall organizational commitment and loyalty. Fundamentally, discrimination affects the employer-employee bond of relationship; informal interactions and voluntary participation are severely affected. Undeniably, the impact of these forms of discrimination is felt in the society- creating a highly segregated workforce and society that do not uphold the equality of all human beings. Ideally, through clear and efficient affirmative action, there is still a great sense of hope in future where equal opportunities in employment, education, and other aspects of life will be achieved despite their gender or race. However, this would only be achieved only by addressing and analyzing discrimination based on its impact on the society rather than just as a coincidence or phenomenon. Affirmative action is crucial and politically acceptable public judgment; thus, the government should keenly be involved in eliminating any discrimination relating to inequality, harassment, and victimization women and minority groups.
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