4-1
Anthropology has done much for religion by comparing religious opinions and cultural practices across social organizations, concluding that religion is created by human society that practice it.
Assumption of modern anthropology holds that religion is in continuity with magical thinking (Cassirer 1944:122).
God is an imaginative projection of humans as it has been observed that images of gods
worshiped by communities resemble such communities. For instance,
Xenophanes a Greek writer observed that Thracian gods were blue eyed and blond while those of
the Ethiopians are flat nosed and black (Harvey, Van A. 1997). If gods are like the people
worshiping them, then the society is worshiping itself in the disguise of religion- this argument
has not been validated by all anthropologists. But this may make much sense if ‘Emile
Durkheim’s views were to be considered. He defines religion as “projection of social values of a
society”(Durkheim 1963:266) The 20th century anthropologists are side laying the cultural anthropology that was very much aligned to cultural evolution to economic, social and political function of religious beliefs.
Defining religion in a generally acceptable anthropological perspective is quite impossible.
Religious beliefs have not been universal to all cultures. Some cultures are monotheistic, some
polytheistic. Some believed in ghosts some divination. Ritual performance, such as sacrificing
and praying is a uniform element and aimed at influencing the outcome of events. But rituality
alone cannot exhaustively define religion.
As per Geertz’s definition, “religion is a body of symbols used to create powerful, all-
encompassing and long-lasting moods and inspirations in men through the development of
outsets of a general order of perpetuality and depicting such ideas in a realistic way" (Geertz
1966:302). This definition, as has been the subject of debate and most anthropologists are
invalidating the Gueertz definition on grounds of cross culture uniformity of the way religion is
perceived and practiced. Moral codes are not necessary elements of religion.
Psychological and social functions of religion
Religion has no elements that out do spirituality. Religion as a whole is made of socially
developed believes. Communities from the ancient time have had their communal values
reflected in the religious practiced. Even the images of the gods looked like the people practicing
such religion and this shows how greatly social issues has influence elements of religion.
The fact that religion is a product of social matters has influenced the creation of religion may
not necessarily rule out the impact of religion on social matters. Religion has influenced people
collectively and individually.
Education was supposed to change our thinking and may be eventually replace our religious
faith with scientific explanation, but today there are still metaphysical questions that cannot be
answered (there is no possibility that all questions will be answered eventually). Education is
changing the human social nature, but to contrast it with religion, science proves even that
contradict religion cannot completely uproot the societies from the comfort of religion.
Societies have learned to elect or appoint leaders based on religious thoughts- some believe
leaders are God given and other god incarnates. This way the societies have had and respected
leaders (Lee 1993:89).
Psychological function:
Accepting harsh and unjust realities
Denial of the realities of this world like dead is no end
Improved self-image or portraying one has just righties
Sociological function:
Promoting compliance to group values
Increase one's willingness to risk or even sacrifice life for a course
Establishing a common ground for tribal or regional factions.
Animism verses animalism
Animism holds that there is no possible separation between the contemporary world and the
spiritual one and non humans like animals, plants and rocks some geographical feature also have
souls and spirits. Animism believes have been criticized by some anthropologist’s like a Sir
Edward, tailor as childish and reflection of cognitive underdevelopment. Animals, on the other hand is a theory trying to explain personal identity as a property of a person. Unlike animism
animals is the development and rationally believe in the eyes of most scientists. There are people
that are not animals like the aliens, deities and angels- this fact makes animals not uniformity of
all people. This concept is to the anthropological field and now getting much attention.
Rights of intensification and rights of passage
Rights of intensifications are communal right held to mark a crisis in a group like war, upon the
death of someone, to make changes in season, rituals of influencing the nature and to reaffirm
group’s commitment to certain course. Such activities were aimed at keeping people together
during times of hardship. Examples include the celebration of Christmas and anniversaries.
On the other hand, rites of passage are associated with persons change in status. It is usually
marked by a process that separates transits and reintegrates an individual. Example of rites of
passage includes birth, marriage and death. Some societies practice property ceremonies for
boys.
Ju/’hence religious believes.
The Ju/’honestly believe in many Gods. There are however two famous gods the Big god and the
small god. The origin of myths held by this group cannot be dressed. Some sources contradict
each about the roles of the two gods. Some say the bigger god is all good and the smaller god is
evil. Human sinfulness is the cause of human suffering.
The community close to its religious practices and origin myth and religious practices is relayed
upon even when solving illness matters. Healing dances are performed. They got many spells to
rid one of diseases like herbs, magic and dances.
There is no possibility that such spells work for deaths caused by conventional curable diseases
have been witnessed.
4-2
Non-ethnocentric definition of art
Most of has has the tendency of viewing things not just art in respect to our ethnicity. Art itself
has received much interest in the field of anthropology. Anthropologists have been studying art
in different communities. Art in a non-centric terms are diverse human activities and products of
such activities. Such activities focus on the creation of artistic objects, for instance the visual art
that include paintings, architecture and decoration. Such products have their ultimate usefulness
in addition to their decoration Music, theatre, music, dance and performance also fall into the
definition of art.
There is also an imaginative art that includes epic poetry, comedy and tragedy, each variation in
object.
Art may therefore non centrically refer to the following:
Use of creative skill to produce or communicate.
Product of creativity like the fine arts, sculpture and more
Study of art related skill
Stage performances (include poetry, music and dance)
Verbal arts
Anthropologists refer verbal art as a folklore (though there are contradiction of statements). It is
part of all societies. Reasons around verbal art revolve around economic, religious, social and
geographical. Such arts are performed in a way the audience will appreciate. Verbal art may
include dance, performance, songs and poetry. The the an example of the Dobe community of
Tswana, the /Xai /Xai dances did not invent something new to present at the cultural
competition by played what was in the culture already- it was like a demonstration of how
verbal art is part of the society. Verbal art is either entertaining or statement of alienation to
certain group. In more ancient times and in some communities today they are part of ceremonies
and rituals.
Body Arts
Body art is an example, visual language. The impulse of creating art is the nature of humanity
and has lasted as long as the human civilization itself. The human body as recently been the
intentions. Body art cannot be the only topic revolving human body. The body is instances where
performers use (or abuse their bodies) to make statements. It is the category of performance art.
As a result of technological advances and design, body art has spread across cultures. The
following are examples of body arts. Body arts are designed as per the cultural ideals. The
motive and reason for body art is dissolving in the emotion and diversity of the cultures. For
instance, those wearing tattoos may not even know what the images they carry meaning.
- Totes-original meanings of tattoos have been lost despite the large number of people
who wear it. People admire such body arts and wear them eventually. Reasons why
tattoos differs as the wearer's perception. They were worn for quite spiritual purposes in
the ancient Borneo were one to guide the person's soul after death while in New York it
is a sign of rebellion. The origin tattoos is not clear as it was practiced across culture
geographically apart. Unproven speculation state Japan as the origin where it was used
- Scarification: this is a more permanent body art and involves etching, scratching,
branding or cutting images or picture on the skin. It has been used for ritual purposes
and to communicate identities or mark important stages in life as in West Africa. There
are various methods of scarification depending on the society and the technology
available.
- Head shaping: this is an art where the shape of the cranium is altered especially for the
infants. The practice begun one month after birth and ends in six months. This art was
widely performed and motives are likely to symbolize certain ethnic alienation or show
social status. Anthropological evidence shows that this art was common in India and
southern Europe. This practice is still practiced this date, but be few individuals.
Body arts were both spiritual and social signals and those who practiced doing it so that
they may achieve what they consider important like social status, after dead guidance and
spirituality.
The /Gwihaba Dancers were school kids from /Xai /Xai school. Before 1986 schools
were less and not taken seriously by a progressive head teacher was posted to one of the
local schools- /Xai /Xai, he blended Dobe culture with school curriculum and the school
won regional and national traditional competition and finally performing at the
Botswana’s 20th Independence Day in 1986. The Dobe community is living in a remote
area and the work of the /Gwihaba Dancers attracted the attention of the government. The
Community members were also influenced to go to formal school.
The accomplishment the /Xai /Xai dancers should the community across the world.
4-3
Modernization
Modernization is a progressive transition from traditional to modern. The pro modernization
population believes developing countries can come to the same level as the modern society if
modernization variables were to be identified and acted upon. Modernization has led to
abandonment of some transitions including rituals and religious beliefs. The emergence of
society based religion that is well organized, has regrouped the population to fewer religious
believes like Christianity, Islam, Buddhism and Judaism.
Developed countries tend to have more power and its citizens live a high quality life. This is a
motivation for underdeveloped countries. Contrary to traditional organizations, countries
undergoing modernization have governments with concrete and abstract principles and
provisions to guide relationships between citizens and their government. Kent Joan.
Urbanization and industrialization contribute to modernization. As modernization come in,
individuals become more important and societal groups lose value.
Impacts of modernization on Skolt Lapps, shaur Indians and women in developing countries
Impacts of modernization on populations that are embracing development models are obvious.
Modernization will eventually delete tradition and replace it with rational governance that is
universal.
The Skolt Lapps: the oldest inhabitants of Finland. They are distantly related to finish and spoke
speak a closely related dialect of Finno-Ugric family. They were nomads and practiced slash and
burn agriculture. During the agrarian revolution in their farming methods changed and did not
explore new territories. The major migration was in 1944 where they moved to the west 600
miles. Religion changed to 85% Orthodox and 25 Lutherans. Today only 5% of the Lapps have
more than 250 heard of animals. There have been an outcry to the authorities to safeguard the
finish Laaps’ culture. This culture is fading fast as the society modernizes. The government has
led campaigns to prevent people from modernizing.
Modernization first brought in religion and eventually threatened to wipe out the entire
traditional practice (Chengdan 200:7-24)
Shaur Indians: the Shaur people are part of Jivaroan who is the Amazonians. They are
indigenous to Ecuador and Peru. Before encountering the westerners (Europeans), they were
semi nomadic and lived in the rain forests. They had no political leadership (Steel, Daniel 1999 "Trade Goods and Jívaro Warfare: The Shuar 1850-1957, and the Achuar, 1940-1978," in Ethnohistory 46(4): 745-776). Following missionization, they abandoned their lifestyle of dispersing across the forest and started to live in controls to facilitate missionary activities of the Catholic Church. Catholicism contradicted shamanism that latter faded as the church introduced other rituals and beliefs. The Catholic missionaries were quite successful in the acculturation process. They were given authority by the government to take charge of the oil reserve. The change managed to discourage the making of shrunken heads and puppetry rites and instate pursue economic activities.
The tradition shaur faded and they have since gotten involved in education, ran in polls and
many series now serve in the Ecuador army.
Women in the developing world: modernization is the endeavor to scraping traditions and
introducing ideas that bring about economic and social empowerment. With modernization, the
position of women in undeveloped societies is shifting. Women in cultural background were
commonly seen as lesser in authority and a woman cannot equal man. With modernization the
element of gender equality is becoming realistic. Women are sitting around with men in the
decisions making tables contrary to ancient societies. In some countries, women are persistently
empowered to the point that they are taking the family leadership role. Like northern India.
Structural violence:
Structural violence is closely linked to social injustice. It is avoidable and therefore termed as
“impairment of human rights” (Galtung 199:167-169). This is where some social structure
prevents prevents people from obtaining their needs. The results of this kind of violence are
disability and premature death to those occupying the lowest rank in the community.
Structural violence can be three fold:
- Cultural violence- this is the most common. According Galtung, cultural violence
makes direct infringement of rights seem fine. They are legitimized and are
surprisingly acceptable in the society. They at times take the disguise of
progressive policies.
- International structural violence- developing countries are victims of this
violence. They are starving, but organizations that claim to practice global
citizenship are absent in action. International policies of developed nations like
US are complex and opaque.
- Race- this violence is dropping gradually because recent campaigns have tried to
sensitize people from different racial backgrounds to move in together. In earlier
times black people were given last priorities in jobs and health care.
Changes and challenges facing Ju/’hoansi in the 21st century.
The Dobe community is culturally rich but with modernization come bigger problems;
marginalization and scoff. The Dobe during the transition (not unique to them) suffered
dispossession, war and ethnocide. The Dobe community is sometimes regarded even by fellow
Africans as social outcasts (Kent 1997:338). Their economic activities like nomadic
have been repressed and even met with war in some places. Progressive changes that are
occurring today are all based on education which was not available for the Dobe. Integration
into the developed society is gradual but the fact tat progression exists means that even the
cultural practices are also fading away.
References
Cassirer, Ernst
1944 An Essay On Man, pt.II, ch.7 Myth and Religion, pp.122-3. Quotation
Durkheim. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Durkheim, Emie and George, Simpson
2012 Suicide : a study in sociology. London: Academic Press.
Kent Joan.
1997 Feuerbach and the Interpretation of Religion. The Journal Of Theological Studies
[serial online].;(1):p338. Available from: Literature Resource Center, Ipswich, MA.
Geertz, Clifford
1966 "Religion as a Cultural System," in Anthropological Approaches to the Study of
Religion. London: Tavistock Press.
Johnson, Frankie
2007 Tattooing: Mind, Body And Spirit. The Inner Essence Of The Art". Sociological
Viewpoints 23. (2007): 45–61. Academic Search Premier. Web. 13 Mar. 2013
Lang, Andrew
1968 Myth, ritual, and religion. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Lee, Richard
1993 The !Kung San: Men, Women, and Work in a Foraging Society. Cambridge: Cambridge
