When did images begin to become important to the exercise of cultural, social, and political power in the United States?
The history of the image in terms of social, cultural and political power in the United States can be traced back to the first newspapers to be released - ever since Joseph Pulitzer published the World in 1882, featuring pictures and contests to attract new readers and add to the content of newspapers, images have become an important part of establishing American culture and history. With the beginning of the pictoral age of newsmaking came the sensationalism of entertaining stories that would galvanize the people and appeal to emotions. The 1890s saw the beginning of muckraking and yellow journalism, which offered sensationalist headlines and images to spur people to outrage or interest - the more popular the image, the more popular the message. This obsession with images and their power also extends to the film of that era, as iconic images and moments from American history and culture still ring true today. This transition to images becoming powerful happened in stages, but by the 1960s the power of the image could not be denied. By providing unique, absorbable and digestible snapshots of American history, the iconic image became the most effective and poignant way of conveying new events and ideas - for better or worse.
The first use of the image to convey a feeling or have an effect on the American people was due to the actions and initiative of the yellow journalist and newspaper magnate William Randolph Hearst. On February 15, 1898, the USS Maine suddenly suffered a catastrophic explosion while docked in Havana Harbor, Cuba. The ship had been sent there to guard American interests while the Cubans staged a revolution against Spain; with the ship gone and nearly 300 soldiers killed, Spain became the scapegoat. Theories abound regarding what exactly sank the Maine, but there are also those who believe that the sinking was the work of terrorists. While the most likely explanation has been reached that the USS Maine was destroyed by either a mine or an engine malfunction, it was not the responsibility of terrorists; rather, the Spanish government, either by accident or on purpose, set the mine that sank the Maine.
The most important bit of fallout from the explosion of the USS Maine was the journalistic and public relations aftermath, which directly led to the beginning of the Spanish-American War. When the ship sank, William Randolph Heart helped to sway popular opinion toward blaming the event on the Spanish; using yellow journalism and muckraking, he managed to create the impression that Spain had performed the deed as an act of war. With that in mind, the United States declared war on Spain, engaging in years of fighting over an incident that had not been proven to be the fault of the presumed guilty party. The iconic image of the sinking of the Maine became a rallying cry for the American people to call for war. The image in the World of the Maine spectacularly exploding was exaggerated and appropriately dramatic; this image horrified audiences and increased their rage and anger against Cuba, to the point where this single image eventually started the Spanish-American War. It is here that the power of the image to sway public opinion was established, a power that would increase with use over time.
Some of the most powerful images that have shaped American history, however, has been expressed through the magic of film. From filmic experiments in spectacle to propaganda and narrative films during the two World Wars of the early 20th century, the moving image captured American imaginations and increased interest in a wholly new art form. Films such as those created by Georges Melies, including 'A Trip to the Moon," were already demonstrating the power of the moving image - the shot of a moon with a face getting shot by a bullet launched from earth became the symbol of the potential for film to create unique tableaus, and captured people's hunger for science fiction. In order to provide an answer to the European film industry, Hollywood was created, a mecca in California for new and important films to be created - ostensibly a factory for new images and American culture.
One of the first films created in Hollywood was D.W. Griffith's In Old California, a 17 minute short that depicted the era of California when Mexico was still in ownership of it. However, what truly established the importance and impact of the motion picture was Griffith's 1915 film The Birth of a Nation. Depicting the rise of the Ku Klux Klan in a sympathetic light, the film experienced significant backlash for its favorable portrayal of racism - nonetheless, it was a commercial success. The film was the first feature film to be presented at the White House, and its use of innovative cinematic techniques like panning, huge setpieces with hundreds of extras, and long shots made it a new type of spectacle never before seen. The film popularized the image of the Ku Klux Klan in American culture as a mob of men dressed in white pointed hats and robes, and exposed new audiences to this type of storytelling. In that respect alone, the film became extremely important to American cultural and political history.
The Golden Age was the era that truly demonstrated the ability of motion pictures to provide cultural, social, and political images that would capture the imagination of the American public. Running from the 1920s to the 1960s, filmmaking grew as a business and as an art form. With increased distribution and budgets, films became unique pieces of art that everyone could experience together - to that end, many film images remain in the American psyche from that era that are firmly entrenched in the collective unconscious. Charlie Chaplin, one of the most iconic film figures of that time, is well known for his signature look of short moustache, bowler hat, baggy pants and cane. This disheveled look of 'The Tramp' character he played in so many films, including City Lights (1931), is captured in American culture as a cinema icon. His bumbling and entertaining antics captured and delighted audiences during Chaplin's career, and helped to establish the international culture of American stardom.
In that same year, the image of Frankenstein's awful and horrifying visage in the film of the same name, Frankenstein, was created - an image that remains in the political and cultural consciousness. While the book was already published and known to the public, it was the film realization of Frankenstein that helped to paint an image of the movie monster for decades to come. Boris Karloff's stony visage, with bolts sticking out of his neck and flat, pale head and haircut, became the symbol of monsterhood and the iconic cinematic ghoul. Soon, the image of Frankenstein was part of American culture - he became a Halloween staple, and sequel after sequel followed to cement that monster's place in the American psyche.
Of course, one of the most culturally relevant images of American history during that era came in 1933, when King Kong was released. The tale of yet another movie monster, the film followed the search for and identification with a large ape (Kong) found on Skull Island. The climax of the film, in which Kong climbs to the top of the Empire State Building with Faye Wray in his hand, is an image that represents both the spectacle of cinema and the might of America at that point. Featuring the world's tallest skyscraper being climbed and bested by a giant ape was both a symbol of American potential and a warning of its potential failings or defeat by the Other. To that end, that image alone sticks out as the defining moment of American cinema in the Golden Age, and was yet another example of the power of film to show sights the American people would remember and could not see otherwise.
The increasing role of image-based communication in American life has seen both its upsides and downsides. On one hand, an image has the power to offer information and emotion that cannot be conveyed as economically through words - in a very true sense, a picture "is worth a thousand words." The ability to either create or capture a moment in time, especially one that encapsulates such a powerful moment or characteristic of American culture, can have substantial impact on its population. When the entirety of a people are connected by an image, a collective work that they all recognize and understand, it helps to open up lines of communication and understanding between others. This has been shown in American life in many different ways; the overwhelming support for the troops due to effective propaganda in World Wars I and II, as well as the outcry against racism after the release of Birth of a Nation, demonstrate the call to action that many Americans can feel towards righteous causes after being affected so dramatically by images.
However, there have been some disadvantages to the power of the image as well. That same propaganda that helped to support the troops was also used to keep Japanese-Americans in internment camps. The Birth of a Nation helped to create a second wave of the Ku Klux Klan while it was also sparking outrage. Its negative impact stems from its first most significant use - William Randolph Hearst manufactured a war out of an emotionally charged image and yellow journalism, demonstrating the direct destructive impact of an image in the wrong hands.
With this in mind, what is the final verdict regarding the use of images in American history? For all the bad things that have happened as a result of images, the ultimate use of the power of the image rests in those who wield it. Individuals like Hearst used that power to create ratings and boost profits, regardless of the intent. However, with individuals like Griffith, Hughes, and other filmmakers and image-makers, who use images for artistic intent, the power of the image can be used to inspire love, patriotism, and pride for ourselves, our country, and each other.
