Abstract
Ethnomedicine refers to all the systems of healing. Traditional medical systems are part of the culture of many societies around the world. A common feature of ethnomedicine shared by these societies is the emphasis on magic and religion. Many Islamic societies believe that mental illness occurs due to jinn possession, which is a sign of God’s punishment on a sinner. There are the righteous jinn and evil jinn. Although Islamic medicine existed, it was used as an alternative when the rituals failed to work. Islamic faith healers claim that human beings are made of four interacting parts, i.e. body, mind, self and spirit. An illness occurs when their balance is interrupted. They link mental illness to two causes, natural and spiritual causes. Natural causes include pressure from daily life, stress or trauma, while spiritual causes include black magic and ill will. Psychological intervention may help alleviate psychological symptoms of spiritual illness, but complete healing only occurs when the black magic is removed. Women are more likely than men to develop mental illness. Factors attributed to this difference included gender inequality, poor psychosocial health and violence in marriages. It was also noted that men are more knowledgeable about mental illness than women due to factors such as level of education, exposure to information and inadequate mental health awareness campaigns.
Introduction
Ethnomedicine is a term used by medical anthropologists to refer to all systems of healing. Some ethnomedical styles used in North America include cosmopolitan medicine, scientific medicine, and biomedicine. In addition, other traditional/indigenous medical systems exist around the world. They form part of the culture and economy of the society involved. The way of explaining and treating illnesses differ in different societies. However, a common feature they share is the emphasis on magic and religion. In the Islam society, mental illness is associated with supernatural causes and inflicts sinners. Spirit possession and witchcraft are involved in understanding and treating mental illness. The knowledge and attitudes towards mental illness is also different depending on gender and socioeconomic status of the subject involved.
Mental illness is a psychological problem that can be treated through medical intervention. Within many Muslim communities, the low number of reported cases has been attributed to the fear of misunderstanding by health professionals and society in general. Muslims blame metaphysical forces, i.e. jinn/devil possession, as the cause of mental illness. The illness is inflicted upon a sinner due to his/her sinful life and weakness. A survey identified a significant number of Muslims who attributed mental illness to biological and psychological stressors of life. The study indicated that low level of education, female gender, and old age significantly influenced the belief in supernatural causes of mental illness. Such beliefs are reflected in rituals like “Zar” that are performed by Islamic communities to protect from jinn possession.
According to the holy Quran, pre-Islamic Arabians invoked and worshipped jinn. They believed that guardian and ancestral spirits could protect their community. Jinn tales are reflected in pre-Islamic Arabian poetry. The poets drew their inspiration from supernatural powers, which awakened poetry within them. Critics have pointed accusing fingers at medieval Islamic state for using mental illness to enforce religion and political ideologies. It was the responsibility of the members of a family to look after a mentally ill patient. When the patients became too violent to be cared for at home, they were sent to hospital wards.
Three main mental illness categories have been pointed out by Islamic scholars. These include canine madness, lycanthropy and phrenitis. The writers pointed out that mental illness was not due to supernatural powers. The writings of Galen, a Greek physician, profoundly influenced Islamic medicine. Methods of treatment used included massage, cupping, music, cautery and drug therapies. However, people still subscribed to supernatural beliefs and used methods such as charms and amulets to protect from black magic and the evil eye. Exorcisms were also performed by holy men. Both medical and spiritual modes of treatment were used.
According to the Quran, jinn were created before man and also given free will. They could also fall into the devil’s temptations. There are two kinds of jinn- the righteous jinn and the evil jinn. Satan is the jinni who made Adam and Eve sin. A holistic approach is used by Islam towards the health of mind, body and spirit. The Quran is used as a source of healing; however, it is more concerned with spiritual health than the health of the body. It is believed that a healthy life comes from trusting God and avoiding evil deeds. Rituals and cleanliness of the body are also held with high regards in Islam. “Wudu” is performed before the Quran is touched by a Muslim. Spiritual cleanliness comes from the freedom from sin and temptation.
Islamic faith healers view a Muslim as made of four interacting parts. These are mind, body, self and spirit. The four parts interact to create a harmony and balance within the body. A disease occurs as a result of an imbalance of the four parts. The natural environment, within which a person exists, is composed of tangible beings. A supernatural environment also exists and is composed of intangible forces. The disturbance of the balance between the parts interacting occurs within this environment to cause an illness. Faith healers believe that mental illness has two causes. It can be due to natural causes and symptoms include hallucinations, sleep pattern changes and deluded thinking. These symptoms occur due to the psychological dysfunction of a person. Mental illness can also occur as a result of spiritual illness. The faith healers point to unseen forces as the origin of such cases. Black magic can be used to produce medical symptoms such as epileptic fits, infertility, and schizophrenia.
Islamic faith healers identified several causes of mental illness. Pressure and stress from daily life, trauma, and chemical imbalances in the brain are likely to cause mental illness. Spiritual illness can also cause psychological symptoms. Black magic and ill will have been identified as the causes of spiritual illness. The healers claimed that black magic was carried out through plant concoctions or jinn. Mastered plants can be put in food or on people’s clothing to harm. The symptoms shown include hallucinations, erratic behavior and fear. Jinn can also be used to send black magic. Jinn possession can cause high fever. Possessed patients display abnormal strengths, speak in tongue and are thrown into fits. The healers have the ability to tame a jinni. Once in control, the jinni can be used for good or for evil. Ill will is the second category of spiritual illness. Jealous people are more likely to subscribe to evil deeds while good people subscribe to good deeds. Faith healers believe that evil eye can cause lethargy, poor luck and misfortune.
Faith healers in a study reported that since spiritual illness brings out psychological symptoms, a psychological assistance may help to treat these symptoms. However, the patient will only be cured if the black magic is removed. Spiritual healing process involves reciting of the Quran. Natural products like honey, sugar, olive oil and water are also applied or blown onto the patient. The use of natural products is taken from the teachings of Prophet Muhammad. Complete healing of spiritual illness also requires the patient to regularly read the Quran. This makes him less susceptible to black magic and facilitates healing. Belief is crucial in treatment. Belief in God Almighty and that through Him, the cause of the illness will be removed.
Women are more likely than men to develop mental illness. They are susceptible, especially, to depression and anxiety. In 2009, a sample of Qatari population was studied to determine the differences in perception, knowledge and practice towards mental illness, between genders. The results of the study showed that women than men attributed mental illness to evil spirits. In addition, more women than men believed that psychiatric medication would result into addiction. Women also believed that mentally ill patients were dangerous to the society. More men than women accepted and were ready to integrate patients with mental illness back into society. The attitude of men towards mental illness was better than that of women. The study also revealed that women were scared of talking to patients with mental illness and felt ashamed of mentioning a family member with the illness. The knowledge men had towards mental illness was better than that of women.
Factors attributed the differences in knowledge between genders were: level of education; level of computer literacy, and mental health awareness campaigns. Other beliefs identified and attributed to mental illness included poverty, punishment from God, mental retardation, and ill will. Even though, both men and women were willing to visit a psychiatrist in case of mental illness, more women were ready to see a faith healer. Most people were afraid to associate with patients with mental illness and would even reconsider their friendship in some cases. Close to half of the men and women involved in the study would feel uneasy to have a workmate or neighbor with mental illness.
The most common mental illnesses identified by the study were schizophrenia, depression, and ADHD. Men had a better knowledge about mental health because they had more access to information through media. Women were identified as more likely than men to develop mental illness due to gender inequalities, which was reflected through marriage, work, violence in marriage, and poor psychosocial health. Women bore high levels of suffering without seeking medication. They had negative attitudes and poor knowledge towards mental health.
References
Campbell, R., & Islam, F. (2012). "Satan has Inflicted Me!" Jinn-Possession and Mental Illness in the Qur'an. New York City: Springer.
Ghuloum, S., & Bener, A. (2010). Gender differences in the knowledge, attitude and practice towards mental illness in a rapidly developing Arab society. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 480-486.
Laher, S., & Ally, Y. (2008). South African Muslim Faith Healers Perceptions of Mental Illness: Understanding, Aetiology. Journal of Religion and Health, 45-56.
M., S., & H., B. (2007). Introducing Medical Anthropology. New York: AltraMira Express.
