Null vs Alternative Hypothesis
The null hypothesis is the statement of equality between these two; it posits that a certain population parameter is at least equal to certain hypothesized value. Such value is derived from previous research or knowledge. Basically, a null hypothesis states that a certain parameter is not affected by a certain value, hence the value of equality.
The alternative hypothesis, on the other hand, is a statement of non-equality—a population parameter is less than, greater than, or not equal to a value because there is a certain variable affecting it. The alternative hypothesis is often the opposite of the stated null hypothesis (“About the null and alternative hypothesis”, n.d.).
For example, a researcher wants to know if at least one-tenths of the households in the community have been robbed. An appropriate null hypothesis would be: at least one-tenths of the household have been robbed. Conversely, an appropriate alternative hypothesis would be: the proportion of household that have been robbed are less than one-tenths. For another example, a researcher would like to know if the number of males in an institution is equal to the number of females. A null hypothesis for the study is as follows: the proportion of males is equal to the proportion of females. An alternative hypothesis would be: the proportion of males is not equal to the proportion of females.
In qualitative research, hypothesis testing is not usually employed since the variables used in the study are not measured empirically and thus do not warrant a thorough testing of the significance of the results.
Research Validity and Reliability
Research instrument reliability and validity are very important factors of a good research. Both show how accurate and precise the results are, and if they are valid enough to be used in other studies. If a research instrument is both reliable and valid, then it would show consistent and correct results—two desirable qualities of the research in general.
Reliability refers to the verifiability and consistency of the results yielded by the research. Internal reliability is about the consistency of the methods and analyses used by the researcher to draw a conclusion. If the same methods were used several times, the researcher would arrive at the same results. External reliability is the stability and replicability of the results achieved in the In other words, if the research were to be repeated several times, the results would show little variation with each other.
Validity refers to the accuracy of the results; it shows how close the results are compared to the true value. While reliability can produce verifiable results, this alone is not enough for a research to be considered of good quality. Internal validity refers to the quality of the experiment used—if it will yield results that will accurately measure the variable in question. External validity refers to the extent to which the conclusion is a good representative of the population in general—whether the results are good enough to describe the parameter for the whole population (Phelan & Wren, 2005).
Annotated Bibliographies
Yvon Dandurand’s article entitled “Criminal Justice Reform and the System’s Efficiency” explores how effective the criminal justice systems. In order to this, it examines various criminal justice processes employed by different countries and notes their strengths by observing how effective they are based on their results. In addition, it also points out how their systems could be improved for it to be more efficient. Overall, it generalizes the qualities of a good criminal justice system. It further emphasizes its points by describing the consequences of a poor and ineffective system in the society, as well as highlighting the benefits and importance of a well-implemented one. In analyzing the justice system, the research uses a non-experimental method since it focuses more on analysis rather than on methodology.
Vladimir Tochilovsky’s “Special Commentary: International Criminal Justice – Some Flaws and Misperceptions” explores the drawbacks of the international criminal justice system as viewed from an insider’s perspective. It analyzes each flaws in depth, such as noting whether it is inherent or could be avoided, as well as ways to solve them so that they could be reduced to a minimum, if not eradicated completely. In addition, it provides recommendations on how the justice system in general could be improved in the future. Like the previous study, this study employs a non-experimental method as well since it explores the topics pertinent to the research topic.
Definition of Terms
A narrative inquiry is a method in qualitative research in which narrative texts such as stories, autobiographies, and the like are used to collect and obtain data for the study. By analyzing the narratives, useful information can be gathered that will be used for drawing results and conclusions (Trahar, 2009).
A phenomenological research is concerned about how people experience certain phenomena. This type of research aims to explore how people perceive experiences and situations and attempts to explain the causes behind it. (Waters, n.d.).
Ethnographic research, in general, is concerned about how people live their lives. It studies how people’s methods of living and survival given certain conditions, culture, and traditions. Usually ethnographic research is about observing people in a natural setting, unhindered by research questions and experiments (Anderson, 2009).
A grounded theory is a research method in which a substantial theory is derived based from the data collected and observed. In order to conduct a grounded theory method, data must first be collected from the area. While data is being collected, information about the theory is simultaneously collected and developed throughout the process. After many revisions, a theory is then come up with (Scott, 2009).
A case study is an in-depth view of a case. It presents the different perspectives, thought processes, and complexity of the situations involved and analyzes how it affects the characters involved in the case in question. It prompts the researcher to conduct an examination regarding the situations involved in the case, which can open up additional topics that could potentially help the research study (“Case Studies”, n.d.).
References
About the null and alternative hypothesis. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://support.minitab.com/en-us/minitab/17/topic-library/basic-statistics-and-graphs/hypothesis-tests/basics/null-and-alternative-hypotheses/
Anderson, K. (2009, March). Ethnographic Research: A Key to Strategy. Retrieved from https://hbr.org/2009/03/ethnographic-research-a-key-to-strategy
Dandurand, Y. (2014). Criminal Justice Reform and the System's Efficiency. Criminal Law Forum, 25, 383-440.’
Phelan, C., & Wren, J. (2005). Exploring Reliability in Academic Assessment. Retrieved from https://www.uni.edu/chfasoa/reliabilityandvalidity.htm
Scott, H. (2009). What is grounded theory? Retrieved from http://www.groundedtheoryonline.com/what-is-grounded-theory
Tochilovsky, V. (2011). Social Commentary: International Criminal Justice - Some Flaws and Perceptions. Criminal Law Forum, 22, 593-607.
Trahar, S. (2009). Beyond the Story Itself: Narrative Inquiry and Autoethnography in Intercultural Research in Higher Education. Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 10(1). Retrieved from http://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/view/1218/2653
Waters, J. (n.d.). Phenomenological Research Guidelines. Retrieved from https://www.capilanou.ca/programs-courses/psychology/student-resources/research-guidelines/Phenomenological Research Guidelines/
