- Introduction
Sexual assault is a problem that is pervasive in all societies and regions around the globe (who, 2002). It is perpetrated against women, children, and youths. This paper will outline and briefly describe the following sexual violence related terms and issues: sexual assault; rape; impact of sexual assault on victims; rape offender characteristics; classification of rape patterns; etiology or cause of rape; sexual assault of children and youth and other sexual offenses; juvenile sex offenders; theories on potential causes; and treatment of sex offenders.
- Body
- Sexual Assault
Sexual assault is defined as “any sexual act, attempt to obtain a sexual act, unwanted sexual comments or advances, or acts of traffic, or otherwise directed, against a person’s sexuality using coercion, by any person regardless of their relationship to the victim, in any setting, including but not limited to home and work” (WHO, 2002). The term coercion encompasses a broad range and degree of force including physical force, threats, intimidation, and blackmail. Sexual violence encompasses rape as well as other forms of assault that involve sexual organs. Sexual assault occurs all over the world although majority of cases are never reported (WHO, 2002).
- Rape
The definition of rape is divided into 3 categories: forcible rape, rape by fraud, and statutory rape. Forcible rape refers to forcible carnal knowledge of a female against her will. Rape by fraud refers to sex consented by a female of legal age but under fraudulent conditions. Statutory rape refers to carnal knowledge of a female who has not reached statutory age with or without her consent.
- Impact of Sexual Assault on Victims
Sexual assault has profound impacts on the physical and mental health of victims. It causes physical injury and is associated with immediate and long-term sexual and reproductive health problems. Mental effects can be as profound as physical injuries and long-lasting. They include depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, and suicidal ideation. Sexual violence may lead to death as a consequence of murder, HIV infection, or suicide. It may additionally affect the social well-being of victims who may may be stigmatized or ostracized by their families and communities (WHO, 2002).
- Rape Offender Characteristics
The attributes of sex offenders are heterogenous although they share a few common characteristics. It should be noted though that the presence of these attributes do not make a person a sexual offender because they are also present in the general population. These attributes include:
- Deviant sexual preferences, arousals, or interests such as forced sexual contact, engaging in sexual acts with children or adolescents, inappropriate public exposure, tendency to humiliate or inflict pain on others, and engaging in acts of violence.
- Pro-offending attitudes and cognitive distortions whereby sexual offenders rationalize and justify their acts despite being aware of the fact that they are wrong.
- Social, interpersonal, and intimacy difficulties. Sexual offenders tend to have deficits in social or interpersonal interactions such as social isolation and ineffective communication skills.
- Empathy deficits whereby sex offenders are unable to perceive issues from their victims point of view.
- Poor coping or self-management skills. Sex offenders tend to have poor coping skills and to be highly impulsive.
- Under-detected deviant sexual behaviours
- History of maltreatment such as previous sexual abuse (CSOM, n. d.).
- Classification of Rape Patterns
Men who rape women can be categorized into the following subtypes depending on the attributes and patterns of their acts:
Displaced aggression rapist: Rapists who belong to this category carry out aggressive and violent attacks and display little or no sexual feelings.
Compensatory rapist: Offenders in this category rape in response to intense sexual arousal triggered by stimuli in the environment.
Sexual aggressive rapists: Rapists in these category exhibit both aggressive and sexual features in their attack.
Impulsive rapists: Rapists in this group display no overt sexual or aggression features and only carry out spontaneous rapes when the opportunity arises (CSOM, n. d.).
Children sex offender patterns are clustered into:
Fixated pedophiles: Males whose sexual desires, interests, and preferences are primarily focused on children.
Regressed pedophiles: Offenders who have normal sexual desires, preferences, and encounters with appropriate partners but they revert to children as a way of coping or as alternative partners during times of distress.
Exploitative pedophiles: Adults who take advantage of children for sexual gratification.
Aggressive pedophiles: Adults who seek children for sexual and aggressive reasons (CSOM, n. d.).
- Etiology or Causes of Rape
The four principal causes of rape behavior are:
- Uncontrollable urges or impulses
- Mental conditions
- Momentary loss of control caused by unusual circumstances
- Victim instigation (CSOM, n. d.).
- Sexual Assault of Children, Youths, and other Sexual Offenses
Other than rape, there are other many acts of sexual assault against women, children, and youths of both sexes. These acts occur in different circumstances and settings as summarized below:
- Gang rape
- Sexual trafficking
- Sexual violence in health care or school settings
- Forced cohabitation and marriages
- Sexual abuse of children
- Sexual abuse of physically or mentally disabled persons
- Rape during armed conflicts
- Forced abortion
- Denial of right to access or use contraceptives or protective measures against sexually transmitted diseases
- Acts that violate sexual integrity of women such as female genital mutilations (WHO, 2002).
- Juvenile Sex Offenders
Juvenile sex offenders account for at least a third of all sexual violence. Most juvenile sex offenders are 12-14 years old although some are younger than 12 years. Females constitute 7% of all juvenile sex offenders. They mainly perpetrate sexual violence against other minors, and adolescents although some target adults. Models and typologies have been advanced to explain the etiology of sexually abusive behaviors amongst minors (Finkelhor, Ormrod, & Chaffin, 2009).
- Theories of Potential Causes
Single-factor and multifactor theories have been advanced to explain the potential causes of sexual abusive behaviours.
- Single-factor theories.
Biological: Some theorists posit that certain biological factors such as hormones contribute to sex offending behaviours. For instance, high testosterone levels are associated with increased aggression and sex drive (CSOM, n. d.).
Behavioral: Proponents of behavioral theories postulate that sex offending behaviors develop partly due to conditioning or learning. Their theories hold that deviant sexual preferences or behaviors can be learned and reinforced over time (CSOM, n. d.).
Socio-cultural: Other theorists suggest that sexual violence occurs due to societal and cultural norms and structures. For instance, desensitizing messages of sexual violence on television may implicitly condone violence. Portrayal of women as submissive sex objects also promotes sexual violence (CSOM, n. d.).
- Multifactor theories.
Integrated theory: This theory suggests that sexually offending behavior occurs as a result of multiple factors acting in concert. These factors maybe developmental, biological, environmental, cultural, individual, or situational (CSOM, n. d.).
Confluence model: This theory posits that a combination of 3 primary categories of risk factors that is opportunities, motivators, and disinhibitors increase the probability of an individual becoming sexually aggressive (CSOM, n. d.).
Self-regulation model: This model explains the sex offending processes of different clusters of sex offenders based on 4 typologies avoidant-passive, avoidant-active, approach-automatic, and approach-explicit (CSOM, n. d.).
Pathways model: This model characterizes the path followed by sex offenders who target children. It posits that all sex offenders do not follow the same “route” to offending. The multiple pathways followed are influenced by the complex interaction of emotional, personal, interpersonal, psychological, cultural, and environmental factors. The theory suggests that the degree of deficits experienced by individuals in 4 categories of psychological problems explains the chief reasons they engage in sexual violence (CSOM, n. d.).
- Treatment of Sex Offenders
A number of approaches are used to treat sex offenders and they are individualized according to the needs of the sex offender.
Evocative therapy: An approach that focuses on helping sex offenders understand the etiology and motivation of their sexual behaviours.
Psychoeducational counseling: Approach that uses group or class settings to treat deficits in interpersonal and social skills.
Drug treatment: Management approach that focuses on altering beliefs, attitudes, fantasies, and rationalizations that justify and promote the maintenance of sexually violence behaviors.
Relapse prevention: Proactive self-control program aimed at teaching sex offenders trying to change how to anticipate and cope with relapses (McAnulty & Brunette, 2006).
- CONCLUSION
In conclusion, this paper has explored the following sexual issues and terms sexual assault, rape, their impact on victims, rape offender characteristics, classification of rape patterns, etiology or cause of rape, sexual assault of children and youth and other sexual offenses, juvenile sex offenders, theories of potential causes, and treatment of sex offenders.
References
Center for sex offender management (CSOM). Understanding sex offenders: An introductory curriculum. Retrieved from http://www.csom.org/train/etiology/5/5_1.htm
Finkelhor, D., Ormrod, R., & Chaffin, M. (2009). Juveniles who commit sex offenses against minors. Retrieved from https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/227763.pdf
McAnulty, R. D. & Burnette, M. M. (2006). Sex and sexuality, volume 3: Sexual deviation and sexual offenses. West Port, Praeger Publishers.
WHO (2002). Sexual violence. Retrieved from http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2002/9241545615_chap6_eng.pdf
