The Age of Enlightenment is also commonly referred to as the Age of Reason. It lasted from 1650 to 1800. Many agree that the cause of Enlightenment was the Thirty Year War (1618-1648) though it was only an outcrop of many underlying issues that faced Europe at the time (Broner, 122). It came to an end during the French revolution. It is such wars that motivated German philosophers and authors to criticize the idea of nationalism and wars to protect nationhood. The German authors included Hugo Grotius and John Cornenius, who were the pioneers of the ideas that formed the basis for the period of enlightenment.
Enlightenment advocated for reason as the primary means of establishing a system of authority in regard to government and religion (Roland, 46). The objective was to allow all human beings obtain the truth about realities of the universe. It borrowed its ideas of free thought from the pioneers of the preceding scientific revolution, such as Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) and Isaac Newton (1643-1727). The argument was that free thinking could free people from the dogma of superstition, mediocre traditions and religious encirclement that had served to blind the people of the objective truths. The idea of the objective truth was espoused by Immanuel Kant’s motto of the enlightenment “dare to know” (Broner, 42).
The neo-classical trend in modernism identified itself as a period governed by rationale aimed at changed established traditions that were responsive to people’s demands. Rationale is a key attribute of the age of reason. Liberalism, neo-classicism, and progressivism trace their intellectual ideas back to enlightenment. It is these movements that denounce irrationality and emotionalism in decision making just as is the case with enlightenment.
Therefore, reason is the basis of modern ideas. It is because it is held to be the foundation of critical ideas such as human freedoms, democracy, rationale, and capitalism. Its insistence on freedom and democracy form the basis of many constitutions around the world, especially through the Bill of Rights. Overall, the effects of enlightenment have been profound, as illustrated by the general decline of the church, growth of secularism as well as economic and political liberalism, especially in the twenty-first century.
The Age of Reason was birthed by the elite who viewed themselves as the ultimate saviors of the world from the yokes of religion and mediocre traditions. The religious tenets they sought to challenge include Protestantism and Jesuit doctrines as well as the divine right of Kings in leading the Church of England. The likes of Voltaire, Thomas Hobbes, and John Locke (1632-1704) sought to reduce aspects of religion to only those that could be rationally perceived, which is the universal aspect of God. They held the belief that religion and public aspects of humanity should be separated. It is this belief that formed the foundation of many western constitutions especially in the U.S of the separation between state and religion. As a result, it led to the emergence of atheism as a religious doctrine.
The philosophy of the Age of Reason was separated into schools of thought as classified by Immanuel Kant. The schools included the rationalists and empiricists. The two schools of thought appear to represent the two distinct centuries in which the enlightenment period covered. Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677) and Gotfried Leibniz (1646-1716) were among the pioneers of enlightenment ideas based on rationalism.
They believed that, in principle, anyone could gain knowledge exclusively through reasoning. However, empiricists led by John Locke believed that knowledge was a product of experience and human instincts. As a result, rationalists resorted to the use of mathematics as their basis for knowledge while empiricists resorted to the use of physics. Ultimately, the two schools of thought had set the precedent for the industrial revolution and the growth of modernism.
As alluded to earlier, enlightenment affected all spheres of life. It was especially the case for religion, which was predominantly of the Christian denomination in Europe at the time. However, even on the issue of religion, proponents of enlightenment did not have a unified stand. That resulted in the development of two schools of thought: rational supernaturalism and deism.
Rational super-naturalists such as John Locke believed that some aspects of revelation could be rationally established. They argued that as a result, revelation can be reduced to a tangible doctrine about God, which forms the basis of morality. Deism appeared to be more inclined towards rationalism as opposed to empiricism. Deism held that revelations cannot be rationally established and as such not a basis for deriving a tangible doctrine about God and in extension morality. Deists such as Matthew Tindall (1694-1778) argued that after creating the universe, God gave his creation a free hand in their daily activities. Consequently, revelation cannot be held to above reason.
Tindall in his book “Christianity as Old as the Creation” argued that nature in itself is the religion ordained by God and as a result, it is perfect hence no need for revelations. Furthermore, he argued that God, who existed since the beginning of the universe had not changed in form or essence even in the present times hence no need for new revelations. He sought to eliminate the issue of superstition that had become so ingrained in religion and traditions of the people before the Age of Reason. It formed the basis of naturalism, which is the belief that the laws of nature are superior and should form the basis for guiding humanity.
The scientific revolution helped shaped the ideas of the period of enlightenment. It did so by questioning previously held subjective truths. The revolution led by the likes of Galileo Galilei and Robert Hooke (1635-1703) sought to develop new ideas and find new answers to problems whose solutions had hitherto been at the behest of traditions and religion, which essentially meant that they relied heavily on superstition.
Isaac Newton used mathematical theory to solve scientific problems. It is such mathematical theory that later formed the basis for rationalists as their foundation of knowledge. The scientific discoveries made during the Age of Reason (such as a solar system) resulted in a well-ordered universe as well as the establishment of secular ideas that form the basis of the modern world.
The period preceding the Age of Reason had been marked with numerous wars such as the 1642-1651 Civil War in England. Many scholars argued that the wars were primarily motivated by the belief in superstition and revelation as the foundations of knowledge and information. It led to kings declaring wars arbitrarily. Pioneers of the ideas of enlightenment sought to reverse this by establishing a political doctrine founded on philosophical principles, which would ensure stability in Europe.
As a result, schools of political thought underwent a renaissance during this period. John Locke’s “Two Treatise of Government” and the Levithian by Thomas Hobbes converged on the denial of the idea that kings had the divine right to rule over the people. They argued that given the superiority of the natural law, sovereignty is transferred to kings by the people only as custodians for it. The people hold the ultimate custody over their sovereignty.
Locke argued that there exists a social contract between the people and government that even kings should abide by, failure to which they should be overthrown (Broner, 112). It is such schools of political thought that are said to have influenced the French Revolution and the American Independence War. The social contract formed the basis of modern democracy and constitutionalism.
It is during this era that forms of government became well-defined. They included despotism, monarchies, and the republican system. The republican system appeared to be the most favored in honoring the social contract. The period saw some leaders embrace enlightenment ideas. Such leaders included Alexander II of Russia, who freed serfs. The Roman Emperor Joseph II granted religious freedoms to Jews and Protestants.
Despite the success of the Age of Reason in opening up people’s minds and establishing a rational world order, it has been severely criticized. One of the criticisms advanced against enlightenment is that the reactions it stirred in most instances led to war and violence that it had always set to prevent (Hulluing, 90). The wars and violence include the English Civil War and the French Revolution.
It has also been attacked by religious conservatives such as Johan Hamman (1730-1788). He held that knowledge cannot be left to the purview of an individual, but it is rather owned by the universe. He argued that the traditions of the Catholic Church were the only custodians of this knowledge owing to its huge number of adherents who served as witnesses to the divine knowledge (Broner, 165). It was also opposed by German Friedrich Jacobi (1743-1819), who argued that it was possible to believe in superstition and super-realities such as God based on one’s faith, which can be separated from scientific reason without affecting a person’s reasoning. He was of the view that religion persuasions do not necessarily always have to conflict with rationale (Hulluing, 98).
Ultimately, the foundations formed during the Age of Enlightenment propelled the world into modernism that persists even in the twenty first century. The ideals espoused during this period such as religious tolerance, freedom of speech and the clamor for middle class form the basis of the existence of governments. The role of governments in the modern day is to protect and promote these ideals. As opposed to the other revolutionary periods, the Age of Reason cut across all spheres of life (economic, social and political), hence it created the strongest fabrics that help define humanity away from the material definitions that are so often attached to the other periods. The Age of Enlightenment served as a bridge between the Renaissance period and the period of the Industrial Revolution (Roland, 55).
Works Cited
Bronner, Stephen. Reclaiming the Enlightenment. New York: Columbia University Press, 2004
Hulluing, Mark. Autocritique of Enlightenment: Rousseau and the Philosophes. Cambridge,
Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2004
Roland Sarti. Italy: A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present. New ork: Infobase
Publishing, 2009
