‘Non-native’ Varieties and World English
‘Non-native’ Varieties and World Englishes
Introduction
The varieties of world Englishes connects to multitudes of non-native English speakers globally and the individual and collective goals in learning English as a second language. Understanding key themes in contemporary applied linguistics and the role of language in real-world problems faced by individual and groups provides a range of potential solutions available in different contexts of practice (Spelman Miller and Thompson, 2005; Kaplan, 2002; Frawley, 2003: Arts and McMahon, 2006; Davies, 2007).
The use of English as an international language (EIL) and its implications for teaching have attracted much scholarly attention yet, typical to the discussion shows this remains at an abstract level and has not provided theoretically-sound pedagogical ideas through informed research as well as lacking any specifics for use in the classroom. With the strength of this current message the implications teachers’ current classroom practice is inadequate in preparing learners for using English in international encounters (Sanz, 2005). Consequently, teachers having no suggestions where to begin implementing changes provides the foundation of the goal of the following research, assessment, and discourse about teaching English for international communication with greater emphasis on pedagogical decisions and practices in the classroom. Using the conceptualization of EIL as a function of English as an international common language rather than a linguistic variety used uniformly in all international contexts, the following further explores key questions in teaching English as an international language (TEIL).
The TEIL suggests specific ways to introduce an EIL perspective to existing English language classrooms connected to multitudes of non-native English speakers globally having the means to communicate in this language (Matsuda and Friedrich, 2011). The three sections of the following include learner, themes, and the implications for themes and the learner.
Learner
One expert offers:
“Learners can develop metalinguistic knowledge about areas of language that have the potential for implicit development. With practice, this metalinguistic knowledge can become automatised so that it allows for fluency. With this understanding of language and language development, we now turn to more explicit discussion of the classroom as we continue to apply these ideas to classroom teaching”. (Whong, 2011, p. 118)
The framework of this process considers effective instruction of the non-native EIL student and context in relation to autonomy of the learner. The context of the learning tasks in linguistics also provides the means for learner autonomy.
The Context of Learner Autonomy
The non-native English adult learner (age 12 and older) understands that language is the means for expressing thought – for communicating in an intelligent manner and from an international perspective as a student, a professional, an immigrant, a traveller, the implications are critical to relevancy of the method of instruction they gain as learners (Matsuda and Friedrich, 2011). Goldsmith (1991, p. 247) reminds however, “until recently it seemed that there was a serious rift between those aspects of syntax and semantics that reflect thought, on the one hand, and the principles that govern phonology.”
Teaching the systematic organization of the sounds of the English language for both speaking and understanding is part of the technical aspects of the process. The context of the adult learner of EIL in the classroom links to the teacher building an understanding of English both socially and politically connected to the cognitive and psychological characteristics of adult learners (Evans and Green, 2006). According to Pennycook (2001, p. 116), “It is important to understand once again that this connection to politics is not just a connection between classrooms and those areas that are more readily understood as social or political—such as language policy—but rather a view that sees politics as addressing relations of power in everything we do and say.”
Benson (cited by Pennycook, 2001, p. 116), sees this as, “Developing what he calls a political orientation to learner autonomy.” The typical inclination of English language educators means instruction connected to educational policy and language planning while disregarding the political content existing in everyday language as well as language learning practices.
Additionally, instruction must consider the existing differences of learners according to aptitude and motivation. Research continues playing a central role in the development of instructional approaches for the non-native learner and additional language acquisition (Hall, Smith, and Wicaksono, 2011).
Non-native English second language (ESL) learners achieving autonomy needs instruction with measurably expanded ideas about the politics of EIL embracing specific issues such as the environment where non-native ESL learners encounter the societal context of gaining understanding of English as well as the roles and the classroom relationships that includes those characteristics outside the classroom. This focus includes providing learners with relevant content in learning tasks (Pennycook, 2001).
Whong (2011, p. 116) explains, "In carefully devising tasks, a teacher can create situations which require the learners to use particular forms which may be new to them" and thus create the necessary context useful as a function of EIL practices. Inclusion of the adult non-native learner in creating effective learning tasks proves an aspect of developing learner autonomy and fits the characteristics of adult learners.
As suggested by Penncook (2001, p. 116), “If we view the classroom as a ‘microcosm of the social order,’ does this mean that social relations in classrooms merely reflect those of the broader social world?” On the other hand, acknowledging learners exist in classrooms operated in dynamic ways beyond this, “how can we conceptualize ways in which what happens in classrooms may be related to broader social and political domains?” The autonomy of the non-native English learner does not mean having it exist only as an island found in the classroom because the EIL focus means this must apply anywhere English is spoken globally. The following section is on themes in applied linguistics as applied to non-native EIL learners.
Themes
Linguistic, Cognitive, and Sociocultural
Themes connected to second language acquisition for the non-native EIL student according to applied and general linguistic research shows trends and examples in study approaches that include linguistic, cognitive, and sociocultural. The linguistic thematic approaches are oriented toward accuracy and structure of the language (Hall, Smith, and Wicaksono, 2011).
The psychology of learning a language from the cognitive approach involves embracing both the individual and universal elements, while the sociocultural focuses on (as discussed above) the use of language in social contexts (Hall, Smith, and Wicaksono, 2011; Dörnyei, 2009). This is a process that integrates cognitive mapping.
Cognitive Mapping
In the process of cognitive semantics holding to the theme of conceptual mapping according to Fauconnier (cited in Evans and Green, 2006, p. 167) includes three types of mapping processes – projection, pragmatic function, and schemas. In projection mapping the source (domain) projects structure onto the target as related to the target domain as a conception metaphor. “(The) conventional metaphoric mappings allow us to understand abstract concepts like TIME in terms of MOTION.”
Further, as provided by Fauconnier (cited in Evans and Green, 2006, p. 167) stablishing connection between two entities sharing a frame of experience allows non-native language learners gaining understanding about pragmatic function mappings as thematic instructional design. “For example, metonymy, which depends upon an association between two entities so that one entity can stand for the other, is an instance of a pragmatic function mapping.”
History of Academic Linguistic Movements
According to Whong (2011, p. 27), it is the historical roots of teaching language that remains grounded in Europe with “the relationship between development of thought in academia and movements affecting practice in the language classroom.” These themes as applied to the instruction of the non-native speaker of the global variety of English proves (as discussed above) a challenge to the design of instruction. The complexity of language itself combined with language development processes further challenges knowledgeable EIL instructors implementing this fact along with the numerous other pragmatic aspects of instructing non-native adult students and the accompanying constraints connected to any language teaching process.
Themes focused on teachers and teaching and successful classroom instruction practice connected to non-native EL learning is more than language development. Whong (2011, p. 118) further advises that “Language development is not just a matter of language exposure; teachers must decide what the input will be and how to expose the learner to it.”
At the same time, Whong (2011, p. 118) further explains how, “Language development is not just a matter of output; teachers must make that output meaningful and it should require use of language that challenges learners, whatever their current level.” This has implications aligned with themes and the learner as discussed further in this work.
Consequently, as further offered by Whong (2011, p. 118), “Given the limited time constraints of most language classrooms, teachers would do well to decide selectively what to use their time teaching on explicitly. Moreover, while there is much variability among learners, there seem to be constraints on the extent to which older learners can acquire language to native-speaker level.” In this the explicit knowledge a learner has about language potentially compensates for implicit language understanding. “"Schema mappings relate to the projection of a schema (another term for frame) onto particular utterances.”
The schema mapping applied to linguistics considers the configurational axial structure relating to the manner of the quantity of structured space and time to a directed axis according to Talmy (cited in Evans and Green, 2006, p. 525). As an example, “(Thus Talmay) argues that the adjectives well and sick are points on an axis relating to HEALTH. On the axis, well is the endpoint, whereas sick is the remainder of the axis.”
Further to Talmy (cited in Evans and Green, 2006, p. 525) as a consequence, “This explains the different distribution of the closed-class degree modifiers like almost and slightly in relation to these adjectives.” This point looks at quantities as they connect to the domains of space as well as time based on internal structural properties. Further, this applies to how these are distributed within space and time. Nouns are the encoded prototypes aligned to the quantities in space as verbs exists as the prototype encoded in time.
Themes also considered how the schematic aspect shows that the conversion of quantity from time to space and vice versa are processes of reification and actualization. Word classes as grammatical categories have role in this process as well so that uniplex as well as multiplex structures of plexity reflected by singular and plural grammatical categories and bounded by specifics count nouns as well as mass nouns (Evans and Green, 2006).
According to Evans and Green (2006, p. 525) who advise, “In our discussion of both (the) degree of extension and pattern of distribution, we saw that temporal expressions headed by prepositions play a key role in structuring lexical aspect grammatical subsystem provides schematic or structural meaning to the linguistic expression of the cognitive representation. Instruction of the non-native EIL of the adult student applies this according to the cognitive abilities that connects to experience and the goals and the motivation behind these goals to learn a second language.
Implication (Themes and the Learner)
The implications of themes and the learner from the instructional perspective must consider that linguistic knowledge remains stored in the human brain. The non-native language learner and the research on themes in applied linguistic instructional practices considers the individual differences of adult learners as established above.
The motivation of the adult learner carries significant connection to themes in applied linguistics because it demands the role of teachers developing relevant approaches to the approaches of teaching additional languages to this focus group. The application of linguistic approaches for non-native EIL adult learners reveals how the individual differences among this community of learners reflects broader dissatisfaction when instructional approaches derive from Universal Grammar practices (Hall, Smith, and Wicaksono, 2011).
Typical to the majority of additional language speakers’ understanding is that success in learning another language rests on more than developing grammatical competence as applied to accuracy when using the language either speaking, listening, or reading and writing it. At some point during the 1970s the focus changed from instructing language learners about what it is as well as the manner it works to teaching additional language learners what language does. In doing so this mediated situated meaning aligned to sociocultural actions using language (Hall, Smith, and Wicaksono, 2011).
Thus, the application of this focus for themes directed at the instruction of second language learners among non-native students was based on the hypothesis response among this community of leaners was successful because of the challenge this adds to their motivation. This was directly related to more than simply achieving accuracy of vocabulary and grammar. The new focus engaging themes in applied linguistics with learners meant success in second language learning was directly related to fluency and effectiveness in negotiating meanings according to context of second language use – especially among adults in the EIL process as students, business activities, immigration populations, and the increased global tourist industry (Hall, Smith, and Wicaksono, 2011).
Further to the implications of themes in applied linguistics and learners is the sociocultural approaches proposing how acquiring language meeting these specific contexts for use of EIL thus brings the intention of providing the possibility of creating certain manners of remembering, seeing, developing, planning, and learning. Main constructs and principles of the sociocultural themes of applied linguistics look at the contribution of Vygotsky for one as a means of developing relevant instructional methods (Hall, Smith, and Wicaksono, 2011).
The fact alternative approaches to the process of EIL acquisition particular to non-native adult students is the assumption of the separation of individual learners from the context of the social. The aspects of the individual learner in this respect is the process by which language acquisition operates psychologically. From the context of the social is significant to where the use of language takes place and where its meaning remains created through the reference point of pre-existing language realities (Hall, Smith, and Wicaksono, 2011)
Socio-cultural theorists such as Vygotsky viewed language as emerging from both cultural and social activities so that it is only later that this becomes a reconstruction for it individualistic psychological phenomenon. The implication of EIL as framed theoretically for themes in applied linguistics and the learner then emerges as needing centred more on the participation of learners’ in social contexts where talking such as with classmates, teachers, or outside the class conversations rather than engaging in solely in the process of learning new structures and sounds of EIL (Hall, Smith, and Wicaksono, 2011).
The implications of themes in applied linguistic instruction of non-native learners holds that teachers ideally have an understanding of the motivating factors affecting this group of students. Other language learning instruction may fail to consider the relevancy for practicing additional language teaching and learning using themes. In other words, this is about the instructor deciding what is the pragmatic application of themes in the instructional process aligns to an understanding of the motivational framework of the non-native speaker in learning a second language (Hall, Smith, and Wicaksono, 2011).
Whong (2011, p. 118), suggests teachers to sorting “through the balance between ‘natural’ and complex implicit input and explicit instructed input” aligns to current research suggesting themes in applied linguistics allow learners acquiring “aspects of meaning, including pragmatic knowledge, the meaning of words and subtle aspects of semantics which even linguists have difficulty explaining.” Considering how themes in applied linguistics aligned to the, Core properties of syntax such as word order and sentence formation can also be acquired” suggesting how these remain areas for instruction with development connects to learner response to contexts of both rich and authentic input.
In addition, according to Whong (2011, p. 118), “Other areas of language, such as native-like pronunciation and functional morphology, seem beyond the reach of natural acquisition except in exceptional cases. These are areas that will need more explicit instruction.” The adult non-native learner of the EIL process remains the most viable student when themes in applied linguistics for instruction consider the real-world context of this second language use worldwide but the underpinning implications still remains attached to effective instruction as the role of the teacher in this process.
Conclusion
The above research, assessment, and discussion focused on themed in applied linguistics and non-native’ speakers of varieties of world English instruction successfully brought a better understanding of current trends aligned to learners, about instructional themes, and the implications aligned to themes and learners. In the shrinking global community, the continued EIL as applied to real-world contexts brings a growing research focus on the motivation of the adult non-native second language learner as a student, a business professional, an immigrant, and the increasing tourist industry. Within this aspect of the subject of the above work, the constant focus that emerges is about the role of instruction and the role of instructors in developing relevant and effective EIL learning tasks for the non-native language learner. The push for themes in applied linguistic instruction having real world applications of the use of EIL practices as provided in the literature identified and referenced in the above takes a pragmatic approach to the acquisition of a second language from the perspective of the learner. The context of second language use, the cognitive applications of the adult learner ability for using a second language, and the importance of the political and sociocultural aspects of second language use particular to the EIL application remain fundamental and pivotal for the informed ESL instructor developing learning schemas. The growing opportunities that instructors create, encourage, and welcome non-native second language learners assessing the instructional themes in applied linguistic teaching proves an important opportunity for creating the desired goals and outcomes for the non-native language student achieving learning. It is an exciting time for both instructors and non-native language learners bridging the communication gaps created by the need to acquire the skills for using a second language.
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