Alienation
The concept of alienation is a one of the central constructs of Marxian theory. This concept was used for description of a capitalist mode of production when workers lost control over the means of production. In accordance with Knox & Pinch (2010) it is described as “a mechanism of social change” and relates another concept of deviant behavior in wider sociopolitical connotation (p.215). Later alienation was used by the early deterministic theorists because it was of a great interest when studying spatial variations of people behavior (Amin, 2002).
Marx outlined several reasons of alienation. Firstly, alienated person feels like economic, social or political systems prevent him or her from participation in the wealth distribution process. Secondly, the person’s experience confronts with the way the systems satisfy human needs or if they do not satisfy the needs at all. Thirdly, alienation is characterized by feelings of distrust, dissatisfaction, and powerlessness confronting distribution system of power and wealth.
The concept gains more importance when being considered in political aspect. Alienation is a live issue nowadays being a stimulus for the expression of protests. It may vary from slight forms of unusual protests to violence and terrorism. For example, alienation can be a stimulus for strikes and revolutions thus disturbing certain social order if being prevalent enough. People of various professions may express their dissatisfaction by holding protests against low salaries, unsatisfactory working conditions or discrimination.
Shoe-throwing can be an example of an eccentric protest first expressed by Iraqi journalist who threw his shoe at George Bush in 2008 (BBC, 2010). Terrorist attack of World Trade Center dated 11th of September is an evidence of a radical protest caused by alienation between Western and Eastern cultures.
2. Gender Roles
A concept of gender roles emerged within the framework of social constructivism and described the way how social objects of consciousness are developing in social context. As applied to social geography, cities can both create and reflect gender roles. This concept directly relates the following concepts: sexuality, identity, discrimination and territoriality. Gender roles are certain expectations associated with male or female behavior that are held by society. Differentiation between “male” and “female” work is the most common example of the routine distribution of gender roles (Knox & Pinch, 2010).
For example, a female has to act like a male in the male-dominated environment not to be distinguished from others. Otherwise she would experience mockery, ironic comments, and hints emphasizing her difference. She would have to accept the intrinsic rules of this environment, such as aggressive dominating behavior (shouting at the phone) and working extended hours inherent in typically male behavior. Another example of dominating male culture can be traced when a women walks along gang streets being gazed with lust or receiving sexist comments (Takanashi, 1997).
The concept of gender roles is a subject of continuous discussion among contemporary social geographers and sociologists since the bounds of gender are significantly diffused nowadays. Gender is seen as a social construct rather than mere sexual identity. The most topical issue is changing role of woman in society when she has to combine routine work, family and career (Wilchins, 2004).
Creative component of urban cities can be traced when talking about gender roles. Contemporary life style and social changes influences traditional gender roles. The notion of typically “male” or “female” work gradually becomes outdated (Jackson, 1991).
3. Externality (Third-Party) Effect
Externality effect is an impact of the party which made certain decision disregarding the opinion of other parties’ interests. Externality effect is also called third-party effect or spillover. It is a notion of behaviorist approach to studying urban social geography. The third-party effect emerges when a person, a group of people or an institution encroaches on other people welfare (Stanley & Yanarella, 2002).
For example, opening a supermarket may bring both positive and negative externalities to the community. Buying food near the home any time is a positive externality while noise generated by the cars of supermarket customers can be attributed to a negative externality.
Another example of negative externality is pollution generated by the plant affecting people living in the same community whose interests were not probably taken into account.
Knox & Pinch (2010) subdivided two types of externalities: public behavior externalities and status externalities. Public behavior includes people behavior in public related certain generally accepted norms (tidiness, sobriety, upbringing children, etc.). Status externalities can be attributed to distinction from other members of a society. Thus, living in distinctive neighborhood is an example of status externality. In this context externalities relate the concepts of ecocentric approach, territoriality and residualization (Jackson & Smith, 1984).
People, especially those who possess wealth tend to maximize the effect of net externalities. Net externalities are often determined by the location of public goods or organization of public services in a region. Thus, the notions of the price of accessibility and proximity costs are tied to the notion of externalities because people tend to access maximum urban amenities and avoid undesirable effects caused by negative externalities. This is the determinant of externalities competition and conflicts (Rote, 2003).
4. Sexuality
In social context sexuality is often defined as the way a person express him- or herself as a sexual being. Also, it is described as a set of certain behaviors, social activities, and actions attributable to a person who associates himself or herself with certain sex.
The notion of sexuality intersects with other notions (gender, gender roles, identity, queer). A concept of sexuality becomes more popular nowadays because physical appearance plays an important role in the cities. The first reason of increasing significance of body is that it is often parallelized with cities processes (Browne, Lim, & Brown, 2007). For example, transport systems are often associated with “arteries” and “nerves”. Body and sexuality are reflected in the way the person dress him- or herself (Knox & Pinch, 2010). Physical appearance and clothes transfer messages about cultural background and social values to other people (Reiss, 1986). For example, when seeing a woman in a hijab on the street, one may assume that the woman practices Islam where sexuality is not open to free expression. On the contrary, sexuality when expressed too openly (very short skirts, low-necked dresses or excessively bright colors) indicates women of certain professions (prostitutes).
Often the notion of “normal” sexuality, most commonly, heterosexuality, is imposed by the social institutions stressing perfect slim or muscular body without disabilities perceived as sexual. Cultural theorists consider sexuality, gender and other physical differences as cultural performances rather than natural entities (Knox & Pinch, 2010).
Sexuality and behavior associated with sexuality is often used in TV commercials. Many companies use this concept to advertise their products and link them with sexuality in the consciousness of their customers. The advertisement of perfumes, clothes, and even food are good examples of such advertising campaigns.
5. Queer
The word queer means a person or behavior that is deviant from other ‘normal’ people (heterosexuals) or conventional behavior. Within the scope of social geography, queer is interpreted as a person whose views on sexuality, gender, life style deviate from traditional. Queer theory is rooted in post-structuralist critical theory which emerged in 90’s as a separate field of queer and women’s studies. Queer is a social construct confronting traditional heterosexual society. With respect to social geography queer theory attempts to expose injustice reflected in the nature of social institutions and public spaces designed for heterosexuals without regard to other gender identities. Queer phenomenon is actively studied and discussed by sociologists nowadays. Queer is more radical movement comparatively to gay movement. On the contrary to gays who sometimes tend to be traditional, queers insist on their principal difference from other people. Besides, queer theory takes into account the interests of people who are neither heterosexuals nor gays (for example, bisexuals) (Wilchins, 2004). Concept of queer relates other concepts of social geography, namely: sexuality, gender roles, gender, territoriality, and discrimination.
Many people witnessed queers’ provoking behavior, mock weddings, gay parades and shopping that is the part of queer strategy of increasing public awareness. Queers question fixed sexual identity. They often use parody and exaggeration to show that anyone could be in their place and to make fun of traditional masculinity icons. The debates concerning gay geographical separation are going on because some people consider this would help to draw attention to their problems, others think that such a separation does nothing but discriminate these people from the society (Johnston & Longhurst, 2010). Interestingly, gays encounter the same problems as heterosexuals: there are wealthy and “masculine” gays attending gyms who confront other gays. In Canada lesbians divided their movement into groups (older lesbians, color lesbians, Jewish lesbians, etc.) (Knox & Pinch, 2010).
6. Territoriality
Territoriality is a concept of crowding theory. The followers of crowding territory stated that people are inclined to behave like animals when it comes to the territory. They believe that people follow their innate sense of territory. Territory is perceived by human beings as a source of privacy, security and safety (Knox and Pinch, 2010). The theory revealed links between crowding, stressful situations and deviant behavior. Excessive crowding caused by urbanism may result in deviant behavior including aggression, mental illness, homosexuality, promiscuity, juvenile delinquency and withdrawal. Territoriality relates following concepts: externality, social exclusion, and alienation (Allen, Massey and Cochrane, 1998).
The concept of territoriality is popular nowadays because of continuous processes of overpopulation and urbanization. Density of population is increasing and territoriality problems in many countries are becoming acute (Johnston & Sideaway, 2004).
Blocks of black people in the US are rigorously defended by them showing their dominant position over those who dropped their by chance. The members of gang groups use the same approach when marking territory. Interestingly, more sophisticated groups also mark their territory. Acquisition of property is innate characteristic of capitalist system reflecting natural desire to possess own territory (Parker, 2002).
There is no direct evidence of the fact that crowding provokes stressful situations causing deviations in behavior. In accordance with Knox and Pinch (2010), the studies that represent the results of this research of the dependence between crowding and crimes do not reach a consensus on the point. Thus, the issue is controversial and still vividly discussed by the sociologists.
7. Sectoral Model
Sectoral Model was developed by Homer Hoyt in 1939 representing an alternative view of residential mobility. This model resulted from a detailed study of rental values of the US cities with regard to mortgage lending risk. Hoyt aimed to create a classification of US mortgages by neighborhood types (Knox & Pinch, 2010). According to this model decisions regarding acquisition of the best residences made by the households of high status are the defining factors of urban residential structure. Hoyt made an attempt to explain the overall principle of urban organization in this way.
Sectoral Model relates the notions of territoriality, activity space, and filtering. The main idea of this model is that households of high-class change their residences aiming at exclusivity maintenance while lower income households acquire new residences to improve living conditions (Rote, 2003). Usually, the wealthy choose new residences far from industrial enterprises near water wells preferably on the hill. Thus, the chain of these moves is determined by the construction of new houses for the wealthy households. As the result old property filters down the social scale while housing scale is filtered up by the individual households. The structure of any city proves this theory because cities are often divided into prestigious (Kensington and Chelsea in London) and poor (Whitechapel in London) communities (University of Westminster, 2009).
As living proof for the validity of his theory Hoyt described Chicago structure where upper class lives near Lake Michigan while low-income households reside along commercial establishments, the railroad lines, highways and other transportation routs. Thus, by introducing his model Hoyt explained the typical city structure: middle- and high- income households reside far from industrial sectors and low-income households have to reside in manufacturing areas (Sklair, 2001).
8. Activity Space
The totality of all places of regular contact resulted from normal household activity is called activity space or action space. This notion came from behaviorist terminology where it was described as one of the main criterion for choosing the place for living. The concept explains the motives for choosing one or another residence. The aim of this search is to find the right housing which would meet the requirements of price, time, and comfort (Knox & Pinch, 2010). The concept of activity space is tied to Sectoral Model notion, concept of territoriality, and filtering (Johnston and Sidaway, 2004).
Interestingly, searching logic with applied to activity space is often subject to bias. Indeed, the activity space of the household is more limited than perceived. For example, low-income households are inclined to search for a new residence within their neighborhood area centered on their previous residence while high-income households prefer to focus on the sector located between their home and the working place. Thus, choosing the dwelling according to current activity space is a subjective process and does not often represent a better choice (Pacione, 2001). For example, members of a household sought for the new home in the neighborhood to their previous residence. Finally, they found the right dwelling at a fair price. However, there might be other similar homes in other city areas which are not worse than their previous home and can be acquired at the same price. As the members of the household are biased, they will not consider this alternative. The same principle can be applied to ethnic communities. An existence of ethnic areas can be explained by the phenomenon of activity space: Peckham (Little Lagos) is considered an area traditionally occupied by Nigerian community (Johnston, Poulsen and Forrest, 2004).
9. “Asylum-without-Walls”
The notion of asylum-without-walls is also termed service-dependent ghettos. These areas are characterized by poor-quality neighborhood and lack of appropriate services. The notion of an asylum-without-walls appeared when large institutions for mentally ill were closed due to financial cuts carried out by the UK government (UK revisualization policy). This notion relates the following concepts: not-for-profit sector, externality, alienation, and territoriality. Traditional health services gave place to community-based forms of care. The community-based organizations for mentally ill emerged after deinstitutionalization of traditional mental health services. The idea of creating homelike friendly environment to help mentally ill people had largely contributed the wellbeing of urban homeless people (“Critical Social Policy”, 2002). Knox and Pinch (2010) represented a study concerning changes in the structure of mental health institutions. The authors marked this change in urban forms as a significant improvement in healthcare service because large institutions for mentally ill were associated with stigmatization and poor living conditions. The deinstitutionalization is the result of overall democratization of the society and total improvement of living conditions especially for those who are in need (socially vulnerable groups). The reason for these changes was that asylums-without-walls affected by cuts causing decline in living standards (Robinson, Anderson and Musterd 2003).
The story of Santa Clara County, California, service-dependent ghetto is an example of health inequality which has to be addressed by the government. Single-parent mothers in the US and UK recently encountered similar problem when experienced cuts in spending. The problem of asylum-without walls should be resolved before it worsens because it makes vulnerable groups even more unprotected (Knox & Pinch, 2010).
10. Workfare
Workfare is another important concept of restructuring in public sector. The sense of workfare is to make unemployed people work in order to receive unemployment welfare. The idea of workfare belongs to Ronald Reagan who was the first to implement this policy in the US in 80’s. Later, in 90’s, Bill Clinton applied to this practice again. The term workfare consists of two parts: work and welfare (Quaid, 2002). Welfare is a form of welfare payment targeted to increase the employability of unemployed people through their participation in various activities. Workfare includes the following measures: reduction of benefits and allowances, withdrawal of benefits, enforcement of mandatory community services, community work, denial of payments for mothers who raise children who already receive welfare which lead to conflicts and inequality (Knox & Pinch, 2010).
The term workfare relates the following terms and concepts: postwelfare state, governance and not-for-profit sector (Department of trade and Industry, 2002).
American government as the most experienced institution in governing unemployment and poverty had developed many workfare programs, namely: Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF) and Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) (Department of Trade and Industry, 2002). Also, US government is going to switch to individualized workfare programs to control the payments.
However, unpaid work does not attract American unemployed. Thus, the Boycott Workfare (UK-based organization) organized a boycott of McDonald’s and Burger King to force these companies stop exploiting workfare labor. The activists of the organization stated that such a policy benefits wealthy people by providing unpaid labor (Kelley, 2012).
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