Chapter 9: Descartes
1. "I find here that thought is an attribute that belongs to me; it cannot be separated from me. I am, I exist, that is certain" (Descartes qtd. in Soccio 260). What does Descartes mean by this statement and why is it so important?
Descartes claims that there is no ego without a thought (mind) and this ego does not exist in a thoughtless state. That is one of his most important ideas, which led to a well-known statement - “I think therefore I am”.
2. What is meant to be proven by the wax example? How does Descartes go about proving this?
Through this thought experiment Descartes meant to prove how much better we know our minds comparing to our knowledge of the world around us. Descartes describes the different properties of wax ball and then shows how they would differ if he puts it closer to fire.
3. What is the egocentric predicament and how does Descartes attempt to escape it?
Egocentric predicament is the problem of “getting out” from inner knowledge and getting to know of the outer world, which is full of other different knowledge. Descartes attempts to escape it through the idea of “clear and distinct perceptions” and proving that God exists, coming up with the Cartesian Circle.
4. Briefly outline the causal argument from the third meditation.
Descartes assumes that his “clear and distinct perceptions” are possibly to be the foundation for his philosophy and ideas. His arguments state that God exists and is not a deceiver, therefore his perceptions are true.
5. What is the Cartesian Circle?
Cartesian Circle is a specific way of argumentation that is used by Descartes where the arguments are circular.
6. What are your thoughts on Descartes' mind-body duality? Do you agree that humans are comprised of these two entities? Or, are you more likely to agree with the materialists who say that our minds are only another part of our bodies and, therefore, must operate according to scientific laws?
I would agree with Descartes` statement that the nature of our bodies is completely different from the nature of our mind. I think our minds are more complex and they have more complex needs that our bodies have. As far as I`m concerned, that could be the explanation of some inner conflicts that people sometimes have.
Chapter 10: The British Empiricists
1. Define a priori knowledge. Define a posteriori (empirical) knowledge. Discuss the difference and how each is possible and how each influences our understanding of the world.
A priori knowledge does not depend on one`s experience and is obvious without any scientific experiments. A posteriori knowledge is the one that depends on experience and requires some empirical proof. Each of these knowledges divides our world intro things that we know about by default and things that require some kinds of experience to know them.
2. What is the copy theory of ideas? What is the significance of this theory in regards to how we gain knowledge?
Ideas are assumed to be “faint copies” of our previous experiences and impressions. According to this theory, we gain knowledge by observing and experiencing something and then processing it in our minds.
3. What is the difference, according to Locke, between primary and secondary qualities?
Primary qualities are those that can be measured and do not depend on observer`s perception, they convey facts. Secondary qualities depend on observer`s perception and knowledge about them cannot be considered objective.
4. Define the Empirical Test of Meaning.
Emperical Test of Meaning is a research where the conclusions are based on experiments and observations.
5. Describe Hume’s application of the empirical test of meaning in the following cases:
a. The ego - a bundle of perceptions and personal experience.
b. Scientific reasoning – unlike mathematics, a study of numbers and not of the real world, every experiment that involves pretense of achieving abstract knowledge, is pointless and cannot be relied upon; Hume believed that empiricism leads to total skepticism.
c. Ethics – our choices, actions and believes are dependent on our habits and customs, they naturally flow from our feelings.
d. Religion – is believed to be inimical to ethics and shows God as an immoral being; people have a sense of morality which relies on human psychology, so they don’t need God to set the rules.
6. Discuss skepticism as a philosophical approach. In what ways can it be considered a strength? In what ways a weakness?
Skepticism is a philosophical approach in which it is believed that any knowledge requires a strict examination and undoubtable evidence before it is believed to be true. It is a weakness when a person cannot accept any concept due to (temporary) lack of evidence or doesn’t find the provided evidence to be clear enough. It is a strength when a person can assume the concept might be right and is seeking for more evidence to find out the truth and make the right conclusions.
Chapter 11: Kant
1. What are the three steps of the epistemological turn?
Descartes is dissatisfied with his Scholastic background. He thinks it is the best choice to start it over – this is how the Western world’s obsession with epistemology began.
Locke agrees that there are lots of disagreements that should be examined and solved beginning with examination of how knowledge is actually gained. Locke claims all we really have is the direct access to our own minds.
Berkeley brings back terms of an external world to philosophy and comes up with a statement that we know nothing about the matter around us and all that really exists is our mind. Hume pushes empiricism further.
2. What is the purpose of the regulatory categories of the mind? How does Kant envision they operate in regards to human understanding?
Regulatory categories of the mind regulate our perception of any objects that we see and sense. According to Kant, those categories apply to our inner representations in order to understand or perceive objects of our inner intuition.
3. What is the difference between a hypothetical and a categorical imperative?
Hypothetical imperatives are those that we operate in order to achieve certain goals, while categorical imperatives are relatively general and relate to morality.
4. Define the categorical imperative and how it is derived from reason.
Categorical imperative is an unconditional moral obligation that does not depend on reason while it is necessary to follow in any situation.
5. What do you think of Kant's categorical imperative? Do you think it is a useful moral rule? Why or why not?
I find Kant`s categorical imperative rather useful while any other moral rule can be derived from it; if everyone was really following this moral rule the world we live it might have become a better place.
Chapter 12: Utilitarianism
1. What is the principle of utility?
The idea of the principle of utility is that our actions and choices are right if they make us feel happy and they are wrong if we feel pain and/or negative emotions regarding them.
2. Define the following:
1. Psychological hedonism: a belief which states that it is in human nature to always seek pleasure and avoid the pain.
2. Ethical hedonism: a belief that our duty and the main purpose of living is to maximize our pleasure and positive emotions in our lives.
3. Define and describe hedonic calculus. What is its purpose?
Hedonic calculus is the estimation of total pleasure and pain, gained through a certain choice of behavior or action. During this calculation, all the positive and negative emotions that were a result of a certain action must be considered. Its purpose is to determine whether the action we took or are planning take is right or not.
4. "It is better to be a human dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates satisfied than a fool satisfied" (Mill qtd. in Soccio 361). What does Mill mean by this statement?
5. What is the purpose of the Trolley Problem thought experiment? What are your thoughts regarding the implication of the experiment for utilitarianism?
This thought experiment shows the conflict between the principles of morality and the principles of utilitarianism. Although by doing nothing and killing five people one would make avoid the responsibility for the death of these people, taking responsibity would help to do a rather moral thing.
Chapter 13: Marx
1. Define the Substructure and Superstructure and describe how they relate to one another.
Substructure and superstructure are the units by which Marx divided the society. While substructure is all about the production and its essential components – resources, machines and their owners, superstructure includes more sophisticated matters that are not a part of country`s economics (religion, art, etc.). It was stated my Marx that superstructure is influenced and shaped by substructure.
2. How does class struggle shape human history, according to Marx?
According to Marx, the phenomenon of class struggle is responsible for any conflicts and strikes in-between the society and in future this struggle would be resolved by the working class overthrowing the bourgeoisie, making any production state-owned.
3. How does Marx describe human nature? How does socialism/communism relate to human nature?
Marx`s vision on human nature was that humans seek to get the satisfaction by fulfilling the needs and helping others (the society in general), mostly by production of the products. Socialism and communism are based on this view on human nature, where the pursuit of happiness lies through being of use to the society by production and bourgeoisie is something that prevents the working class from being happy and satisfied.
4. Define Marxist alienation.
In Marxism, alienation is a specific social phenomenon, described by Marx, which was caused by social stratification and resulted in alienation of people from their essential human nature and its aspects.
5. What are your thoughts on Marxist alienation? Do you think this is a problem in our society? Why or why not?
The kind of alienation that was described by Marx is not a problem in our modern society, since we have freedom of choices. There are different classes still, but the stratification is not as strict and contrast as it used to be, especially comparing to the times that Marx wrote about and the society he used to live in. Today the lifestyle that people choose and the ways to express themselves are completely up to them and it is pointed out that one is free to do anything that makes them happy.
Chapter 14: Kierkegaard
1. Define objectivity and subjectivity according to Kierkegaard.
According to Kierkegaard subjectivity is the inner perception based on experience, something that makes and individual distinctive from others: objectivity is nothing but a subjective truth.
2. Why does Kierkegaard criticize objectivity?
Kierkegaard doesn’t believe in such thing, claiming that every truth and knowledge is in some way subjective.
3. What is the dilemma of lived choices? At what point in your life have you felt this?
Dilemma of lived choices lies in the idea that when one faces some problem in a real life, no amount of knowledge is enough to make the right choice and solve the dilemma. I have felt this when I had to make choice that would influence my life in further.4. "The story of Abraham contains just such a teleological suspension of the ethical" (Kierkegaard 173). What is the teleological suspension of the ethical and how does Abraham illustrate this?
Teleological suspension of ethical is an idea that ethics is teleological since it has some specific end purpose in mind; it is a question whether there is some higher goal in favor of which our ethical duties must be suspended.
For Abraham, killing his son would be ethically wrong but religiously right. According to Kierkegaard`s “Fear and Trembling”, Abraham had no idea what is the reason for this action and in different four versions he performed God`s will in a different ways. He couldn`t see the end result due to his lack of knowledge.
Selections from Chapter 17: Sartre
1. "It means that, first of all, man exists, turns up, appears on the scene, and, only afterwards, defines himself. If man, as the existentialist conceives him, is indefinable, it is because at first he is nothing" (Sartre 345). What does Sartre mean that we are at first nothing? How do we define ourselves?
Sartre means that one`s existence comes before one`s essence. We define ourselves by developing our minds and while playing certain roles in society.
2. What does Sartre mean by the statement that we are condemned to be free?
Since human being has a complex mind, unlike the animals, it is free to make any decisions and take any actions, but this kind of freedom leaves us stuck between the number of possible choices and opportunities, enchaining us.
Chapter 16: Nietzsche
1. Define perspectivism. Identify evidence for and/or against this idea.
Perspectivism is a belief that our perception is personal and depends on the inner qualities we possess and we interpretate what we see through the personal experience. This concept might explain the number of misunderstandings between people and different phenomenon in human psychology. For example, in semiology different signs and symbols represent something to each person, but what exactly they represent depends on one`s associations that relate to culture and personal experience.
2. Describe the concept of the Eternal Recurrence. How can this concept be useful?
The concept states that the universal is infinite and it keeps repeating itself infinitely. While the time is infinite, the objects and some actions in it are finite, but they repeat for an infinite number of times. This concept helps to see the world as a reoccurring game, which goes on and on and has no final state.
3. "God is dead. God remains dead. And we have killed him" (Nietzsche 181). What does Nietzsche mean by this statement?
Nietzsche here relates to a Christian God and the religion. He is afraid of a possible chaos that can happen while the atheism develops in society and the religion seems to downgrade.
4. Define the concept of the Will to Power. What are your thoughts on the Will to Power?
The Will to Power described by Nietzsche is believed to be the main driving force for human beings. I think it might be partially true and it does drive people sometimes to certain achievements and actions. I also think that is not our main driving force and depends on the environment. Will to Power should be a great driving force if a person lives in the competitive environment, but if a person is alienated from society, their driving force could be knowledge or just survival.
5. "If there are two fundamentally different types of peoplethen there must be two radically different types of morality" (Soccio 474). What are these two types of morality? Specifically, what characterizes each type?
The two types of morality are “Master morality” and “Slave morality”. In master morality the general values are pride, nobility and strength, while in slave morality they are sympathy, kindness and humility.
Final Reflections
1. Which philosopher did you enjoy studying the most and why?
It was rather interesting to study Marx`s concepts while his philosophy has become very popular, especially in Russian Empire and later in former USSR and therefore it was partially responsible for the changes in that society and the mentality of people. Knowing more about his concepts makes me understand the history better.
2. How are you more philosophical now that you have completed this course?
Knowing the different perceptions and views of human nature helps to understand it better, as well as the society. All the concepts together seem to help to understand some patterns in the behavior of people and the society in general.
