Example Of Ancient Civilizations Essay

During the ancient period there were a lot of empires. These empires were extensive that included a huge territory and population, and were extremely wealthy. All empires have expanded through conquest of neighboring states, but not all of them lasted a long time. Some of the empires collapsed in less than a few decades after their creation, while others have existed for centuries as a hegemon of the ancient world. So how does it happen that the Roman Empire and the Han Empire lasted for centuries, and the empire of Alexander the Great and Mauryan Empire of Ashoka have collapsed almost immediately after the death of these rulers? So let's examine each of the empires and the reasons for their stability or collapse.
Period in the history of the Macedonian power since the death of Alexander in 323 BC before the Battle of Corupedium in 281 BC has the particular importance. Thanks to the successful conquests of Alexander the Great and his companions, managed to capture a vast territory and set up a huge, hitherto unknown empire. The Empire of Alexander of Macedonia had included most of the policies of the Balkan and Greek island, the area of the former Persian Empire, part of the North-Western India. Alexander had known the internal fragility of its powers, united only by force of weapon and fear, Alexander has tried with help of number of social, economic and political reforms to rally the state, make it viable, to give him certain strength. Early death of Alexander has prevented to continue this work. The onset of action of centrifugal forces, which had led to the collapse of his empire on the state-fragments and have turned out to be more viable. These fragments of the empire formed new Hellenistic states that have controlled Diadochi of Alexander. This process was very complex. It is difficult to capture a certain connection and regularity in motley changing events that took place in different parts of the Greek-Eastern world, in the turbulent collision between the successors of Alexander (Diadochi). Nevertheless, it is clear that the collapse f the monarchy of the Alexander Empire and the formation of the new states were not the result of fortuitous circumstances or aspirations of individuals, but should be seen as an inevitable process, due to the socio-economic and political reasons.
After Alexander's death the power actually turned out to be at the disposal of the troops that emerges as the decisive force in the questions of the succession of power and in the ensuing struggle. Senior positions in the army of Alexander and senior positions at the court, as mentioned above, took the "friends" and the king's bodyguards, mostly representatives of the Macedonian aristocracy. In addition to Antipater, who commanded the army left in Macedonia and Greece, one of the first among them is Perdiccas, experienced leader that has passed through the school of Philip and Alexander. Other Macedonian leaders have stood Antigonus, called One-eyed later, the satrap of the Great Phrygia, Ptolemy, which was in favor at the end of the reign of Alexander, and commander of Macedonian troops Seleucus, who was a Macedonian nobleman from Euopos. The rest of the Macedonian leaders - Lysimachus, Greek Eumenes and others-have also sought to play an independent role. Along with the Macedonians positions satraps in the eastern regions occupied by Iranian aristocrats - Bactrian Oxyartes, father of Roxane, Fratafern, etc.
"Friends" of the king were mostly the commanders of army. The core of the infantry has formed phalanx, representing the mass of Macedonian soldiers who felt the opposite of their interests and those commanders. This opposition manifested itself immediately, it has come almost to the armed clashes, yet both parties have come to an agreement.
As a result, in the agreement between infantry and commanders as king was recognized Arrhidaeus – a half-brother of Alexander. Also, they have agreed that when Roxane will have a son, then he will be declared the king; he was born two months later and was named Alexander. In fact, the power of Macedonia, Thrace and Greece was in the hands of Antipater - the supreme strategos of Europe. Military power in Asia was concentrated in the hands of Perdiccas, the supreme strategos of Asia. Was simultaneously resolved the question of satrapies: in the part of the regions in Asia have remained the same rulers. In addition to Phrygia and Pamphylia Antigonus got more Lycia, Eumenes - Paphlagonia and Cappadocia (the latter, however, he had to conquest). At the head of Egypt was put Ptolemy Lag, Thrace and Ionia got Lysimachus, Babylonia - Seleucus.
In Greece the death of Alexander was the occasion for a new upsurge antimacedonic movement that led to the war, dubbed Lamian - on behalf of the city, near which focused military action, with that war actually started the war of Diadochi. In the course of the war has revealed deep social contradictions between the different layers of Greek society.
After analyzing the events, there are several major reasons for the collapse of the empire of Alexander. The first reason - the early death of Alexander the Great - his early death prevented the possibility for entering the legitimate heir to his throne in the age of majority. Also, early death has prevented strengthen the conquered territories from the inside, under the authority of a single ruler. Second - the vastness and speed of the occupied territories - Alexander too quickly has conquered vast areas that were hard to occupy with a small number of Macedonians away from home, and hasn't pursued a policy of the assimilation on the conquered territories. The third reason was the concentration of power in the hands of his commanders - Diadochi that divided the empire among themselves.
Mauryan Empire of Ashoka has included a vast territory. Within the framework of a single state formation were united: nations and tribes, different ethnic, linguistic and cultural relations, and follow the various religious beliefs, traditions and customs. Eight years after the accession to the throne, Ashoka has declared war on the state of Kalinga.
In his edict, Ashoka reports that during the war, was taken prisoner 150 thousand of people and were killed and more than 100 thousand people. Joining Kalinga was important strategically and commercially, so region has helped to strengthen the empire.
In Kalinga Ashoka had faced with a stubborn resistance. This area was part of the empire of Nanda, and then it was able to achieve independence. In a special edict devoted conquest of Kalinga, Ashoka himself acknowledged that severe penalties were applied, to the common people, and to the nobility, who also did not want to accept the authority of Maura.
Ashoka has also carried out reforms in domestic policy. For example, he ordered to ban the sacrifices. Use of forced labor was also abolished. Was compiled a list of protected animals and was prohibited hunting for fun and pointless burning of forests. Ashoka has launched production and export of raw materials for medical use, not only for medical purposes, but also in veterinary medicine, as well as a network of appropriate health facilities. Ashoka has preferred pilgrimage, distribution of gifts and meeting with ordinary people.
With Mauryan period is also associated widespread Buddhism in India. Buddhism that had arisen for several centuries before the era of Mauryan as a small sect of wandering monks, Buddhism to the III century BC has become one of the main trends in the spiritual life of ancient Indian society. At this time, there was organized the Buddhist community - Sangha, were formed major canonical works. At the end of the reign of Ashoka he was in very close contact with the Buddhist community and, according to some reports, departing from his former principles, and even begins persecution of Ajivikas and Jains.
Buddhists' relationship with other religions in this period greatly complicated. Certain difficulties were also among the Buddhists: sources tell about the collision of followers of different Buddhist schools. In this regard, the emperor has carefully monitored the integrity of the Buddhist community. He publishes a special decree of the struggle against dissenters - monks and nuns, who undermined the unity of the Sangha. According to decree they should be expelled from the community. However, Ashoka has recommended to Buddhist monks intently study Buddhist texts and called a number of Buddhist canonical writings devoted primarily disciplinary matters.
Sources say that the end of his reign, Ashoka, presenting lavish gifts in favor of the Buddhist community for the prosperity teachings of the Buddha, has ravaged the state treasury. During this period, the grandson of Ashoka - Samprati has become heir to the throne. Kings' officials informed him of excessive gifts of the emperor, and demanded their immediate repeal. By order of Samprati orders of Ashoka for the Buddhist community were not met. In fact, power was concentrated in the hands of Samprati. Ashoka, as sources tell us, with bitterness had to admit that his orders were only a dead letter, and he has lost his kingdom and power though formally remained king.
According to some sources, Samprati was a follower of Jainism and big dignitaries has supported him. The country at that time had the difficult financial situation, and uprisings occurred throughout the empire. One of the major riots occurred in Taxila. According to the sources, in the plot against the king, has attended the queen who was also an opponent of Buddhism. It is significant that in one of the later edicts the order is given not on behalf of Ashoka, as before, but on behalf of the Queen. It reflects the real picture of the last years of the reign of Ashoka.
Thus there are several reasons for the collapse of the Mauryan Empire of Ashoka. One of them is the religious policy of Ashoka and the imposition of Buddhism, which has caused the opposition of Brahmins. The second reason is the domestic policy - brutal policy towards the conquered peoples, the lack of national unity, and a ban on animal sacrifice. And the third reason is the weakness of the successors of Asoka as rulers.
Roman Empire is a post-republic phase in the development of the ancient Roman state, a feature of which was an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and the Mediterranean. The Roman Empire was the only state in the history that has owned the entire coast of the Mediterranean Sea. There were a few prerequisites for a success of Roman Empire and for preserve of the empire for a long period. The first reason is the Roman bureaucracy. Even in the times of the Roman Republic Rome was famous for its bureaucrats and their managerial skills. The second is the gradual conquest of the territories - unlike the other empires the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire in times of war took place almost constantly, and the conquest of the territories was gradual. One of the reasons that allowed to Romans to succeed and keep the conquered territories were roads - the Romans more than other nations have built roads, almost immediately after the conquest. Thus, they could rapidly move their legions by land, and conquered peoples have known that after the beginning of uprising legions would be soon in the rebellious province. We can also highlight the unity of the Romans as a people, and the fact that Rome and the glory of Rome has long served as the highest goal for the Romans themselves. However, over time the cult of Rome disappeared under the influence of emperors and the new religion.
One of the reasons why the Roman Empire for a long time has remained united was Romanization. Romanization is ancient process of assimilation and acculturation that includes the assimilation of folk Latin language and the basic elements of Roman culture a significant amount peoples outside the Italy that have inhabited the province of the ancient Roman Empire and other regions of her subordinates. The process of Romanization was very fast in the Mediterranean (Italy, Iberia, and Provence). In the more northern and peripheral regions it was difficult due to remoteness, poor inflow of settlers from Italy and wars with neighboring and / or autochthonous peoples (Celts, Germans, Illyrians). Also, in the Roman Empire, though there were times of persecution of other religious faiths but many cults were not banned, and even were included into the official Roman religion. However, the constant civil wars between contenders for power in Rome have led to the decline of the Roman Empire.
The Han Empire is Chinese empire, which was ruled by Liu (The Han dynasty), and the period of the history of China after the Qin empire and before the era of the Three Kingdoms. Evidence of the success of the Han internal policy was that it lasted longer than any other empire in the Chinese history. Its governance and institutions have served as a model for all to follow. Moreover, the main ethnic group of Chinese became known as Han. The system of governance at the first Han Emperor was highly centralized, following the model established by Qin Shi Huang. The country was divided into administrative units that were ruled by the officials appointed by the emperor. These officials were paid salary and promotion was not based on ancestry, but on education and on the successful completion of the series of examinations.
Unlike the previous dynasty, the Han emperors have raised the paternalistic ideology of Confucianism, which rallied people around the emperor and allowed to carry out such large-scale projects as the construction of the Great Wall, designed to protect the empire from Xiongnu nomads.
During the early Western Han wealthy manufacturers that engaged in the metal or salt business, wealthy merchants, as well as the rulers of the local scale could boast savings, comparable in volume to the state treasury, and the number of farmers to the thousands of persons. Because of that many farmers did not work in their fields, the government was deprived of a large part of the tax revenue. In 117 BC, In order to limit the possibility of such rich people, Emperor Wu nationalized the salt and iron and steel industry, while allowing many former industrialists to become official administrative managers of monopolies. Production of alcoholic drinks was another profitable sector of private business, which was nationalized by the central government in 98 BC. However, this is reversed in 81BC, and was introduced the tax - two coins for every 0.2 liters of products for private traders. Thus, there are several reasons that allowed the Han Empire to remain united. The first is the imposition of a single ideology of Confucianism, which rallied people around the emperor. The second is the bureaucracy - the officials were appointed not because of the nobility of origin, but because of their education and the success of their service and exams. And the third reason is the economic reforms in the field of monopolies, then the tax on alcohol.
Summarizing all the mentioned above it should be stated that there are several reasons why Empires of Alexander and Ashoka lasted only a brief time. These reasons are: rapid expansion of these empires on the vast territories, lack of the assimilation policies, and lack of the strong heirs. At the same time, after the analyzing the Han Empire and Roman Empire I have concluded that there are several reasons for stability in these empires. These reasons are: strong bureaucracy, policy of assimilation, wise economic and infrastructure policies, and the unity of the nation.
Works Cited
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Sabin, Philip. The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
Shipley, Graham. The Greek World After Alexander. London: Routledge, 2000.
Strong, John S. Legend of King Asoka. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2008.