Abstract
Most studies in existence focus on the causal relationship between Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Alcohol. Even though there some studies that have attempted to find out whether Alcoholism is most commonly as a result of ADHD, these studies have always yielded mixed findings hence the researchers have not yet been able to categorically state that ADHD is a significant causative agent in the occurrence of Alcoholism. With in mind that the exhibition of alcoholism is normally treated by therapist as one of the major symptoms of ADHD in adulthood, the topic of causal relationship between ADHD and Alcohol become of much import. Using various standardized test inclusive of the CADE questionnaire, the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT), the Alcohol Dependence Data Questionnaire, and standardized rating scales for Disruptive Behavior Disorders, the proposed study will investigate whether alcoholism in Universities is as a result of ADHD in the alcoholic students.
Key Words: ADHD, Alcoholism, CADE questionnaire, the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT), and the Alcohol Dependence Data Questionnaire
Introduction
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), just as the name suggest, is a neurobehavioral disorder that is widely known to affect children even though several adults have also been diagnosed with the disorder (Molina, Gnagy, Pelham, Cheong, & Marshal, 2012). Notably, the prevalence of the disorder in children exceeds the prevalence of the disorder in adults with little being known to account for this discrepancy. However, some researchers have proposed that the difference in prevalence might be due to the fact that the disorder is perhaps very difficult to diagnose in adults compared to children. This statement underscores the fact that the symptoms of sometimes diminishes when a child grows up. Apparently, several adults with the disorder are not always aware that they have disorder.
Symptomatically, ADHD is manifested in the form three major symptoms which have been identified to be inattentiveness, impulsiveness and hyperactivity (Molina, et. al., 2012; Lui, Johnston, Lee, & Lee-Flynn, 2013). Assertively, the name ADHD was coined from these symptoms. People with ADHD are overly impulsive and often involve themselves in activities without forethought. This makes them very vulnerable to accidents in addition to hurting other peoples’ feelings. Inattentiveness in ADHD victims is commonly exhibited in their lack of focus and inability to concentrate on activities that demand a lot of concentration and quietness (Molina, et. al., 2012). This explains why these patients are often poor performers academically. Pointedly, the patients are not always able to restrain their movements hence are always in constant random motion. It has also been found out that these children are overly impatient. In adults, the aforementioned symptoms are often accompanied with depression and forgetfulness. It should also be noted that some symptoms such as impulsivity and inattentiveness are not always easy to detect in adults perchance due to the fact that adults have a great control of their behaviors.
ADHD can be diagnosed through a myriad of ways with the main method of diagnosis based information on patients’ behavioral history; information that therapists cumulate through the use of specially designed questionnaires given to parents of the patients to fill. Additionally, the therapists also observe and physically examine patients suspected to be suffering from ADHD (Molina, et. al., 2012).
Attempts to pinpoint the exact cause of the disorder have not been successful. Currently, researchers have to been able to state the exact cause of ADHD even though several postulations have been put forward in a bid to explain its causation. Currently, the most viable postulation about the causation of the disorder upholds that ADHD occurs as a result of interplay of several factors inclusive of genetics and environmental factors (which are suspected to be the major contributors).
The relationship between alcohol and the existence of ADHD is one of the most researched topics with regard to the fact that the environment also role-plays in the causation of the disorder. Several empirical researches have come to the conclusion that alcohol abuse (and addiction) can indeed lead to ADHD particularly if the parent is an alcoholic. The study by Kathryn A. Hausknecht, Ashley Acheson, Karen E. Sabol, Andrew M. Farrar, Artur K. Kieres, Roh-Yu Shen, and Jerry B. Richards titled “Prenatal Alcohol Exposure Causes Attention Deficits in Male Rats” is one such study that attempts to find out if parental alcoholic behavior has some influence in the causation on ADHD (Hausknecht, et. al., 2005). In the study, the researchers conjecture that children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) have always been found to have ADHD hence maternal alcohol, acting as a teratogen, not only leads to FASD but also makes children exhibit symptoms that are akin to the symptoms of ADHD. Working with male rats, the researchers attempted to find out whether indeed prenatal exposure to alcohol can indeed cause ADHD. Hausknecht et. al. (2005) study is of significant import noting that previous similar studies only tried to find out whether prenatal exposure to alcohol influences a child’s attentiveness. The researcher came to the realization that attention problems in both children with FASD and ADHD have a common neural basis. Their finding can therefore be used as a blueprint for future studies involving ADHD and alcohol.
In another study, researchers attempted to find out whether the causation of alcohol abuse can be pinned to the existence of ADHD in an individual. Mostly, while therapists want to diagnose an alcoholic problem, the first avenue they mostly explore is normally whether an alcoholic person is suffering from ADHD. This notion has led many people to believe that ADHD as a significant causative effect in the occurrence of alcoholism. Determined to prove that the indeed ADHD has a causal influence in the occurrence of alcoholism , researchers Brooke S. G. Molina, William E. Pelham, Jr., JeeWon Cheong and Michael P. Marshal and Elizabeth M. Gnagy decided to carry out a study aimed at investigating whether ADHD leads to problems relating to alcohol intake later in life.
Hypothesis: ADHD is not key cause of Alcoholism in undergraduate students.
Methodology
Participants
Participants for the study will be drawn randomly from the university. The study will target 200 students who will be asked to voluntarily participate in the study. Other participants will be sought from Alcoholism treatment programs around the institutions around the university. Approval of the experimental protocols will be sought from the relevant state departments.
Procedure
Permission to conduct the study in the university will be sought from the relevant authorities. Consent to subject the participant to ADHD testing will be also be sought from the participants who will then be assured of confidentiality; the information obtained from the participants as well as the results of the ADHD testing will be treated with utmost privateness. No participants will be allowed to have access to the results of the ADHD diagnosis except when their will a dire need to do so. As an assurance to the participants, Department of Health and Human Services Certificate of Confidentiality will be used to reinforce confidence to the participants about the confidentiality of all the information that they will provide with regard to the study.
Research Design
Both close and open ended questions, compiled into a single questionnaire, will be employed to gather information needed to draw the pertinent conclusion for this study. The questionnaires will be aimed at obtaining information about the drinking habits of prospective participants. The questionnaire will begin with the CAGE questionnaire whereby a participant will only proceed to the next section of the questionnaire of he or she has at least two ‘yes’ responses in the CAGE questionnaire(Zaldívar, Molina, Ríos, & García Montes, 2009). CAGE questionnaire will be complimented by the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT); this will help reaffirm the notion that one’s alcoholic behavior really requires further investigation (Zaldívar, et. al., 2009; Reinert, & Allen, 2002). A more sensitive diagnostic test, specifically the Alcohol Dependence Data Questionnaire, will form the last part of the questionnaire (Zaldívar, et. al, 2009).
Information from the questionnaires will be overly helpful in deciding whether one has alcohol dependence or addiction. It should be noted that the existence of alcoholism in a prospective participant will be an important facet of consideration when picking the most viable participants to be subjected to ADHD testing. However some participant without alcoholism will also picked to act as control in the study. The fact that the participants will have to picked based on what they will write on the questionnaire make the research design to be quasi-experimental.
The 200 participants will have to first prove being heavy drinkers. Additionally, the participants will have to go through ADHD diagnosis with the help of DSM–III–R or DSM–IV ADHD. Diagnostic information for ADHD in the participant will be collected using standardized rating scales (Disruptive Behavior Disorders [DBD]) which will be administered to the participant at a specified date (Molina, et. al., 2012; Jarrett, 2013). The interview will consist of DSM–III–R or DSM–IV descriptors for ADHD, oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), and conduct disorder (CD) (Molina, et. al., 2012). Additional questions will be availed to participants in a bid to unravel some of the most probable causes of alcoholism among university students. Positive diagnosis of ADHD, ODD, and CD will be arrived at when there is sufficient endorsement of ADHD, ODD, or CD- related symptoms. To enhance validity of the endorsements, the results of the diagnoses and the accompanying symptoms will be presented to the more qualified professionals in the field (particularly the professors in the department of the psychology) for scrutiny and recommendation.
References
Hausknecht, K. A., Acheson, A., Sabol, K. E., Farrar, A. M., Kieres, A. K., Shen, R., et al. (2005). Prenatal Alcohol Exposure Causes Attention Deficits in Male Rats. Behavioral Neuroscience, 119(1), 302-310.
Jarrett, M. A. (2013). Treatment of comorbid attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and anxiety in children: Processes of change. . Psychological Assessment, 25(2), 545-555.
Lui, J. H. L., Johnston, C., Lee, C. M., & Lee-Flynn, S. C. (2013). Parental ADHD Symptoms and Self-Reports of Positive Parenting. . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, n.p.
Molina, B. S., Gnagy, E. M., Pelham, W. E., Cheong, J., & Marshal, M. P. (2012). Childhood Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Growth in Adolescent Alcohol Use: The Roles of Functional Impairments, ADHD Symptom Persistence, and Parental Knowledge. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 121(4), 922- 935.
Reinert, D. F., & Allen, J. P. (2002). The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT): A Review Of Recent Research. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 26(2), 272-279.
ZaldÃvar,, F., Molina, A. M., RÃos, F. L., & GarcÃa Montes, J. M. (2009). Evaluation of alcohol and other drug use and the influence of social desirability: Direct and camouflaged measures. . European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 25(4), 244-251.
