Psychology
Introduction
ASD or Autism Spectrum Disorder and Autism are two general terminologies that pertain to a group of people that have disorders when it comes to the development t of the human brain. Autism has various degrees in which they are characterized. The characterizations of this brain development disorder were being studied based on the person’s social interaction, repetitive behaviors, and both verbal and non-verbal form of communication. The autism disorder and autism itself have been merged into one diagnosis umbrella of ASD (autismspeaks.org). With all the behaviors being shown by persons that have these conditions, common aspects of their behaviors were correlated to form a diagnostic procedure to persons with such brain developmental condition. Additionally, autism was also identified to be related to intellectual disabilities of a person, including difficulties when it comes to motor coordination. It was also claimed that persons with autism has difficulty in attention coordination as well as physical health risks such as gastrointestinal disturbances.
There are various medical reasons as to why and how autism develops. Researchers have been studying the underlying causes of this condition in which this paper will also discuss. For instance, it has been claimed that autism may have started since the beginning of the fetus’ brain development. Conversely, both the obvious sign and symptoms of autism may tend to occur once the person reaches the age of 2 or 3 years old. In addition, a person that has autism normally prefers to stick to only one set of behavior in which resistance to either minor or major changes on their daily activities will be neglected (medicalnewstoday.com). In this context, autism’s cause, which is the abnormal development of human brain, will lead the person to only focus on one specific activity. Such activity will be part of their daily lives as their brain expects it to be done every day.
Susan Dodd (2005) says that autism is a persuasive developmental disorder. The condition is being characterized by Dodd as impairments in communication as well as social interaction, restricted, stereotypic and repetitive patterns of human’s interest, behavior, and activities. This condition has also been identified by Dodd (2005) as an inability of the person to establish a social relatedness, a person who fails to use his or her learned language in a normal way to communicate with others. Also, autism is the condition in which a person has an obsessive desire to maintain the sameness and has is fascinated with objects. Furthermore, they have good cognitive potentialities (Dodd, 2005). Such characteristics occur in children prior reaching the age of 30 months. The description of autism is defined by many researchers and practitioners based on its symptoms and person’s behavioral aspect.
Developmental disability, just like the previous description, is how autism was characterized by Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The condition provides challenges to a person when it comes to communicating due to their behavioral challenges. It was also described that autism does not give any difference when it comes to physical appearance of the person. However, they have a totally different ways to communicate, behave, interact, and learn as opposed to many other people that does not have autism. That is because autism affects the human brain rather than it affects the physical or outside appearance of a person. However, various peer-reviewed articles have been published in order to study the deeper aspects of autism. We also discussed in this writing that such articles presented their own findings involving a broader research of the condition. The peer reviewed articles that were presented in this study found more than just the symptoms of the condition. It also found the cognitive aspects of the condition such as the psychological and processing underpinnings of autism.
Research Review
An article entitled “Autism occurs more often in families of physicist, engineers, and mathematicians” (Cohen et al., 1998) had a different view when it comes to autism. The article’s goal is to present evidence as well as the research findings pertaining to the authors’ claim that such condition often occurs in families involved in mentioned fields of discipline. Prior to the presentation of evidence and research method used, the authors introduced autism as to be the most serious psychiatric disorders among childhood population (Cohen et al., 1998). There are various psychiatric disorders that may occur during childhood, but autism may have been one of the most noticeable among disorders. The article also aims to build the idea that cognition among childhood has a domain-specific structure. For example, cognitive domains do exist in human’s brain as an outcome of natural selection (Cohen et al., 1998). In relation, two cognitive domains, which are basic, are folk physics and folk psychology. These two domains are believed to reflect inborn biases in the infant’s brain towards particular types of information such as inanimate versus social events. Cohen et al. (1998) therefore claim that biases on the infant’s attention facilitate the brain in learning the specific characteristics of the environment.
In relation to the authors’ claim that autism occurs more often in families involved in mentioned disciplines, the evidence in children with autism shows that their folk physics is integral. They either have a good understanding of various objects’ properties as well as physical casualty. Moreover, they also understand various mechanisms like cameras, which make their obsessions and interests to normally focus on machines and other physical system (Cohen et al., 1998). That is why the authors claimed that the condition is related to the family’s subject of interests as the child with autism is being more exposed to materials that will attract his or her attention.
The research methodology used in this particular study is quantitative analysis in which respondents used were students from Cambridge University. There were a total of 641 students involved in the research that study one of the three subjects such as engineering, math, and physics. 275 students are working on math subject, while the other 266 students are involved in engineering, and the remaining 100 are the students that are studying physics. The 641 students working on three different subjects were compared with 652 students that are involved in studying literature. There were 480 students in English Literature, while the remaining 172 are studying French Literature. In the process of comparing these groups of students from different fields, they were asked to report using questionnaire regarding the incidence of 6 different conditions in their respective family. These 6 conditions were autism, schizophrenia, anorexia, manic-depression, language delay, and Down’s syndrome. Only the first until the third degree family and relatives were allowed to be included in the definition of family.
Based on the result of the research, most of the incidents of autism are coming from the families of the math, physics, and engineering students. There was only one incident of autism in French and English group out of 480 students in contrast with 6 cases coming from the first group. This research result lead the authors into concrete conclusion that the autism condition are more common in the families that are involve in physics, mathematics, and engineering subjects. Additionally, the authors concluded that their prediction was no longer as such due to the evidence showed in the results. With such results, it was concluded that there is a significant relation between the individuals in whom their cognitive strengths depend on the area of folk physics and having a biological family member with autism. Mainly, the conclusion points out those families that are involved with three significant subjects could be part of contributing factors of developing autism of the infant.
There are various assessments that researchers and psychologists conduct in order to identify the persons’ behavioural development as well as to diagnose if he or she has an autism disorder. One of the assessments is called Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule-Generic or ADOS-G (Lord et al., 2000). The evaluation process is a semi-structured in which involves social interaction, play, communication, and even imaginative use of materials. These assessment processes are being use to persons who are suspected to have autism as well as other pervasive developmental disorders (PDDs). Lord et al. (2000) conducted the research and assessment using ADOS-G so as to provide correspondents that elicit impulsive behaviours using standardized context. Less structured interactions and structured materials and activities are giving standardized context within the ADOS-G. In definition, ADOS-G is the outgrowth of two diagnostic instruments, which are the ADOS or Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule and PL-ADOS or Pre-Linguistic Autism Diagnostic Observation Scale (Lord et al., 2000). Relatively, the study’s long-term goal is to develop a diagnostic tool, which measures communication and social deficits of a person who may have autism disorder.
The method of their research was done a quantitative analysis in which consists of 381 referrals to the University of Chicago’s Developmental Disorder Clinic. The consensus diagnoses were assigned centred on child psychiatrist’s and clinical psychologist’s clinical impressions. Both practitioners interviewed each parent and they observed the child separately. After the interview and observation, they have discussed their impressions in order to come up with best estimate diagnosis. Using ADOS-G method, clinicians were able to divide the children based on the scores of their autism screening. In the process of assessment, children were identified to have various disorders such as language disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, anxiety disorder, and ADHD. As expected there were children who fell on the autism, categorically and based on their score cards.
When it comes to the main results of the study, the ADOS-G assessment method will enable the psychologists and child psychiatrists to diagnose accurately. Such method will enable clinicians to clearly identify if the person or child has an autism disorder. This process will clearly give them the identification of the person if such disorder can be of another form such as retardation, ADHD, or even obsessive-compulsive disorder. In that case, more accurate diagnoses can be done on the children who may have an autism disorder. Moreover, the ADOS-G provided a standardized observation of our present social-communicative behaviour using excellent reliability, test and re-test reliability, internal consistency, and both classification and domain levels for autism.
Lord et al. (2000) concluded that the essential interpretation of ADOS-G assessment method is to understand the gap between autism and other disorders that may have similar symptoms. An individual that has similar symptoms just like the other disorders must also portray some evidence of restricted and repetitive behaviours. This evidence must also show within the ADOS-G context as well as to other methods that are usually being used in the diagnostic process. In that case, psychologist’s or psychiatrist’s observation on the patient can lead into more accurate diagnoses. Thus, the overall ADOS-G assessment strategy is offering more complete opportunity to make the observation standard as opposed to current and previous available methods. Therefore, it will provide a better evaluation as to whether the treatment outcomes can be measured effectively, and to define its usefulness for practitioners are pieces of information that will develop our understanding in terms of its most appropriate use.
An article that was written by Bauminger and Shulman (2003) pertains to the development as well as to the maintenance of friendship in children with autism. Young children that have autism were categorized based on how they function. First are the High-functioning children with autism and the other one is the lower-functioning children with autism (Bauminger and Shulman, 2003). The first category involves children with autism that have the ability to make build friendship with another person. Even though they lack in communication skills, high-functioning children with autism can build relationship between them and to another person with similar condition. On the other hand, the latter category was defined otherwise (Bauminger and Shulman, 2003).
This research aims to explore various aspects in which friendship develops in autism based on their mother’s report. Such aspects covered whether friendship in autism is an actual relationship for the category one children. Generally, this research has three goals. First, to examine the various perceptions of the mothers between the friendship in high-functioning children with autism and typical children in terms of number of friends, friendship duration, and activity types they are in. Second, it aims to define the characteristics of mixed and non-mixed friendships of children with autism. Mixed friendship means the relationship between children with autism and typical child, while non-mixed pertains to the friendship between children with autism and children in special education. Lastly, it aims to identify the factors that contribute to the development as well as the maintenance of friendship among children.
In the process of the study, the research was done using mixed methods such as both quantitative and qualitative techniques. There were 28 mothers in which 14 of them have a child with high-functioning autism and the remaining 14 have a child of a normal condition. Typical children were matched with children with autism on chronological age. The mothers were also interviewed using questionnaires that pertain to their child’s mutual friendship. Additionally, the children that are involved in the research are also part of an extensive research that examines the social-emotional trait when it comes to high-functioning children with autism (Bauminger and Shulman, 2003). Part of this examination is the three meetings that were held for each child. The first two meetings were done in school, while the other is at home. In the process of home visits, mothers were asked to answer several questions, which include a friendship assessment as well as a demographic questionnaire.
Based on the results of the research, the perception of two mother groups were different from each other. The mothers of typically developing child perceived that their child’s friendship as to be having more friends, for a longer time, which happens in a longer meetings (Bauminger and Shulman, 2003). On the other hand, the mothers of high functioning children with autism shows the results as otherwise. Therefore, using the research method, the authors were able to come up with results that show the difference when it comes to the different mothers’ perception towards the friendships of their children. The next result when it comes to the other groups shows that majority of these children, both from typically developing ones and the high-functioning children with autism ones, are having friends with their same age. However, in the group of children with autism shows that have more friends younger than their age, while on the typically developing children shows otherwise.
Another research that was reviewed was the article written by Hasting et al. (2005). In this study they explore the parents of children with developmental disorders such as autism as to how they cope with stress in taking care of their children. It was claimed that dealing with child with autism may be harder compared with typical children. The authors also claimed that there is a link between the parents’ coping strategies and parental stress. Initially, the purpose of the study is to explore two issues. The first issue is to understand the structures that are involved with coping strategies of the parents of child with autism. Secondly, the study aims to explore the relationship between such coping strategies and parental stress among parents.
The methodology that was used in the study was through recruitment of parents as samples. The study has two samples. The first one includes 26 mothers and 20 fathers, which are parents of children with autism (Hasting et al., 2005). In this first sample, there were 6 mothers who were divorced or separated while there were 20 couples. The second sample includes 41 fathers and 48 mothers. Also in this sample, there were 45 couples. In the process, all parents’ mental health was measured so as to achieve their parental well-being capabilities. They also answered some questionnaires regarding parental stress and family and parent problems. They were also asked to scale 20 different items pertaining to aspects that affect both family and parent. These processes have been done in order to collect data that will show the stress and the depression level of having a child with autism. However, Samples one and two have two slightly different questionnaires in which the first one did not have the questions regarding parental depressions from children that have disabilities.
Based on the gathered data from the respondents, parents showed that they are more likely to adopt active avoidance coping in which they act self-blame as well as venting of emotions. Another factor shows that parents are also adopting the problem-focused coping in which they seek for instrumental and emotional social support. The third factor that parents do in order to cope with stress and depression is the positive coping in which parents use positive framing of situations and humours in which they fully accept their child’s developmental disorder.
Conclusion
Autism cannot just be defined based on its symptoms and behavioural aspects of the person who has it. There are broad issues that can be studied and need to be understood by many people such as its effects to parents. It was an eye-opening for many researchers and practitioners that autism has deeper meanings in which we must not only understand the person itself, but the strategies to handle them. Parents also need to explore different methods as to how they can cope with such challenge in order to have normal lives with their child with autism. Understanding the child’s mental capacity may need extensive time and effort so as to make them feel that their situation is not a disadvantage at all. Thus, it serves as opportunity to both parents and practitioners to develop their skills in handling child with autism.
References
The Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule–Generic: A Standard Measure of Social and Communication Deficits Associated with the Spectrum of Autism. (n.d.). Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30(3), 205-222.
Autism Speaks. (n.d.). What Is Autism? Retrieved from http://www.autismspeaks.org/what-autism
Bauminger, N., & Shulman, C. (2003). The development and maintenance of friendship in high-functioning children with autism. The National Autistic Society, 7(1), 81-97.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (n.d.). CDC | Facts | Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) | NCBDDD. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/facts.html
Cohen, S. B., Bolton, P., Wheelwright, S., Scahill, V., Short, L., Mead, G., & Smith, A. (1998). Autism occurs more often in families of physicists, engineers, and mathematicians. Departments of Experimental Psychology and Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, 2, 296-301.
Dodd, S. (2005). Understanding autism. Marrickville, N.S.W: Elsevier.
Hastings, R. P., Kovshoff, H., Brown, T., Ward, N. J., Espinosa, F. D., & Remington, B. (2005). Coping Strategies in mothers and fathers of preschool and school-age children with autism. The Autistic Society, 9(4), 377-391.
MediLexicon International. (n.d.). What is Autism? What Causes Autism? Retrieved from http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/info/autism/
