Critical Thinking
Chapter 5
Learning is the processes of relatively permanent changes in behavior achieved after repetition or experience. Classical conditioning on the other hand is widely defined as the behavioral modification that a subject develops after previously repeated neutral stimulus that evokes a certain desired response. A Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov discovered classical conditioning in the early 20th century accidentally (Ciccarelli 2008). Certain elements are as the distinct characteristics of classical conditioning. The first is Neutral Stimulus (NS), which is a stimulus that does not induce a response. Unconditional Stimulus (US) is another stimulus that is innately capable of eliciting a response. Conditioned Stimulus (CS) is another. This stimulus induces response because it is paired with an unconditioned stimulus. Forth is the Unconditioned Response (UR) that is a distinctive response stimulated by an Unconditional Stimulus. The final element is Conditioned Response (CR) which is a response learned and stimulated by a Conditioned Stimulus.
Ivan Pavlov’s experiment was about reflex actions for example dogs. He noted after some time that the dogs involved in his experiment immediately started salivating after he rang the bell. This occurred even when he brought inedible things. The concluded that the bell was the unlikely stimulus that the dogs had related to feeding. The general principles associated with classical conditioning include acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, stimulus generalization, and discrimination (Ciccarelli 2008). Stimulus generalization is the conditioned stimulus to evoke familiar response even after the response has been conditioned while in discrimination, there is the ability to differentiate a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that are familiar. Extinction is the event that the conditioned response fades or disappears while spontaneous recovery is when the conditioned response reappears after a period of rest.
Another groundbreaking but related experiment was John Watson’s little Albert experiment. At the first, Albert a nine-year-old boy was introduced to burning newspapers, white rat, a rabbit, a monkey, and a mask but showed no reactions. The next time, little Albert was introduced to the rat again and then a metal pipe was hit. The baby started crying. Watson paired the rat with loud metal pipe and whenever the baby would see the rat, he would immediately become irritated (Ciccarelli 2008).
Operant conditioning is a behavior modification that is facilitated positively and negatively through positive and negative reinforcement. B. F. Skinner discovered it. Reinforcement theory of motivation purposes that an individual’s behavior is responsible for the consequences. Other concepts of operant conditioning include punishment, shaping, extinction, generalization, and discrimination. Punishment is process whereby a behavior is debilitated or discouraged. There are two types of punishment, which include positive and negative punishment. Negative punishment is a pleasant stimulus is removed to reduce a behavior. On the other hand, positive punishment is unpleasant stimulus is introduced to reduce behavior.
Behavior modification is alteration of behavioral patterns while utilizing basic learning techniques such as conditioning, biofeedback, and reinforcement. Cognitive learning theory is defined as the process of gaining knowledge through thought process. Learned helplessness is psychological state of mind that people feel powerless to escape the situation they in due to prolonged failed efforts to escape. Observational learning could be defined as the type of learning that occurs through observing other peoples behaviors. Albert Bandura (Ciccarelli 2008) discovered observational learning. The first element of this theory of learning is attention. Here, the observer must pay attention to the model. Second is the memory where the observer has to retain the model behavior. Next is imitation and this is the ability to reproduce the actions of the model. Finally is motivation. The observer must be motivated to execute the learned deed.
Chapter 6
Memory is the power of an individual to recollect things. The first step of memory is encoding which understands the information. Second, is storage of the information. Thirdly, the individual must be able to retrieve which is remembering the information stored. The information-processing model is a structure characterized by psychologist to explain the mental process. The two types of memory that are the short and long-term memory majorly describe this. In the short-term memory, the information is stored temporarily before it could be used, discarded, used, or stored in the long-term memory. The long-term memory is where information that is not currently used is stored. Sensory memory is part of the memory system that stores information about stimuli. The sensory memory retains copy of images or sound that is send to the short-term memory. The short-term memory on the other hand has very limited space and can only store information for 20 to 30 seconds (Ciccarelli 2008). Chunking is a technique that people use to store information more easily in the short-term memory by subdividing them into sections mostly numbers. Maintenance rehearsal is another effort made to retain information in the short-term memory by repeating statements.
Long-term memory can be differentiated into two types, which are explicit and implicit. Explicit is the type of memory that is facilitated by conscious thought while implicit is that which does not require conscious thought but facilitated by routine. Information can be stored in the long-term memory through three ways (Ciccarelli 2008). They include procedural, primed and classically. Information can be retrieved from the long-term memory by recall, recollection, and relearning.
Cues are triggers used to signal the need to perform an act. State dependent learning is the learning process done in sleep or under chemical altered state that cannot be retrieved unless restored in the condition that was. Failure in psychology is the inability to retrieve information stored. Serial position effect is the affinity to remember the first and last items in a list other than the information in the middle. There are different types of amnesia. They include anterograde, retrograde, dissociative, infertile, transient global, and wernike-korsakoff’s amnesia. Automatic encoding is the ability to store information without an effort or the intention of doing so. An example is an individual is able to recall when they ate dinner without necessarily recording it. Flashbulb memory is the ability to remember everything almost exceptionally vivid. Encoding failure is the inability to recall information that was passed on. An example is inability to remember phone numbers if an individual does not make an effort to memorize.
Chapter 7
Cognition is the mental process of retaining knowledge through understanding by thought, experience and senses while intelligence is the ability to apply knowledge and skills. There are different types of intelligent tests. They include Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Cognitive Abilities, and Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. The first is used to measure verbal comprehension in adults, the second used to measure general intellectual ability from ages 2 to 90 while the third is used to measure fluid reasoning and knowledge in children and adults (Ciccarelli 2008). The first intelligence test was developed by Alfred Binet in an effort to understand intelligence. IQ is calculated by I.Q=MA/ CA *100 MA-mental age
Test construction is objective to create models of standardized measure to sample individuals. Validity in psychological testing ensures that the test is measuring what it should be measuring. Reliability ensures that the test is well standardized to be used professionally (Ciccarelli 2008). Finally, standardization is the consistency of objectivity in administered tests.
There are several theories of intelligence. The first is general intelligence discovered by Spearman for people who perform well in cognitive test. The second is the savant syndrome identified in people with autism (Ciccarelli 2008). Componential intelligence is another form whereby an individual is able to adapt very fast in new scenarios. Finally is the emotional intelligence that helps people regulate emotions.
Work Cited
Ciccarelli, Mayer. Psychology: South Asian Edition. Pearson Education. 1st ed. 2008
