- Strategies used in Multiple Triangulations
The participant’s observations have been considered important as a number of factors like document analysis, merger of interview surveys, direct observations and the participation of the observer are involved. On the same grounds, experiment, survey, film, pictures and biographical methods have been defined in the category of approaches in order to get the data from sources. Most of the interpretive sociologists prefer to utilize triangulated method to make their schemes as unrestricted for the people. This reflects that such sociologists are committed to rigor their data. In this context, they will have to choose very carefully the method of collecting a sample from the sources. Numbers of factors are kept into the mind while selecting the sampling method like relevance, gender and biographical factors. The research methods play a significant role in the study and present line of actions that have to be taken in the future. The strategies of triangulated research mean that the strategies are mainly focused on basic observations that mostly based on social objects. These objects depict the concepts and experiences of the scientists.
It is anticipated that all the definitions regarding objects is understandable to all and is approachable to public. As there always remain some of the conflicts regarding school of thoughts of scientists, yet consensus has been developed among most the scientists. The reasons of difference among them are manifold; the most significant variation in conducting action on the reality. Various rules have been mentioned by the author pertain to triangulation. As per his point of views the activities are same to those who have studied the paper. He revealed that making sense is a process used by every human and is termed as reality. It has also been observed by the author that until and unless symbolic interaction is considered significantly in the conduct of people, sociology will never get a status of a discipline that understands the subject matter.
Triangulation can also be defined as using multiple methods for planning activities to be done. This will help the sociologists to move form single method of activities towards multiple. There are a number of benefits of triangulations. By using multiple methods in the study, the researcher or observer can overcome the faced paucities of the result. There is a close link between observation generated by the researchers and the theories. Until these are linked, the main study cannot be completed. In this regard, the triangulated methods help the observers linking theories and observations. Numbers of types of the triangulation have been discussed by the author. Following four types of triangulation have been defined.
- There are three sub types of Data triangulation:
(a) Time
(b) Person
(c) Space
The Person analysis, on the other hand, has following three levels:
(a) Aggregate
(b) Collectivity
(c) Interactive
- In Investigator triangulation, multiple observers are used instead of single observers of the same object.
- Multiple perspectives are used in theory triangulation rather single perspectives irrespective of same objects.
- Methodological triangulation involves within-method between-method triangulations and triangulations.
- Data Triangulation
There are various methods of triangulations. The observer may triangulate either by the data sources instead of the methodology. The theoretical sample is one of the examples of triangulation by data sources. In this technique, the observers use data as much as they can to explore the actions under analysis. There is a difference between data sources and data generating. The data generating means research method.
- Subtypes: the time, Space and the Person
The time and space are observational units. The concentration on time and the space depicts the relationship regarding persons. The basic objective of concentration on time observation is kept in track on interactions. In this context, the time can be days, weeks, month or year. On the same ground space, for example; the ecological analysis, as another observational unit, can be used for research analysis.
There are close interactions between these units and are closely interrelated.
- Person Analysis and its levels
There are three main levels regarding person analysis.
- Qualitative Research regarding Advanced Education
- Intensifying Multiple Triangulation regarding Perspectives Strategies
- Aggregate Analysis
- Investigator Triangulation
In this type of triangulations, multiple observers are engaged in the research instead of single one. It has been observed that in most of such analysis multiple observers have been employed, although all the observers are not involved in most of the activities. The availability of observing shows the research has great moral and technical support to the others. Sometimes issues regarding consensus may arise among observers due to their exclusive experience regarding activity they observed.
- Theory Triangulation
Theoretical triangulation used in few of the investigations. In this type, a hypothesis is developed on an activity and then all the relevant data is to be gathered focusing all the dimensions. It has been observed that it would be beneficial using multiple interpretations and perspectives.
Following main steps are involved in this pretext:
- All the possible interpretations regarding subject has been given in a complete list. This activity will help in generating various theoretical perspectives to be used during the process. These perspectives include phenomenology, interactionism, Marxism, semiotics, feminist theory and the cultural studies.
- The research has been conducted. For this purpose all the empirical materials to be collected
- All the framework related to multiple theories that have been computed in step number 01 are concentrated towards empirical materials
- During the process, all those materials are discarded that are considered not useful for the study. In this context, all interpretations also discarded.
- On the other hand, all those interpretations that are considered useful in making sense and beneficial for mapping of process are gathered in an interpretive framework. These type of interpretations solve all the issues pertaining empirical materials.
- An interpretive system that is reformulated is based on Points of empirical materials that just have been interpreted.
There are various advantages of triangulation system. Some of the significant features have also been described by the author.
- Methodological Triangulation
- Triangulation Within the Method
The usage of this type of triangulations is most common in case where observational units have to be viewed multi-dimensionally. In this case multiple strategies have been used by the investigator while just using one method of survey to examine the data
- Triangulation Between the Method
In this case multiple methods are used in order to illuminate same class of process and called as between the method or sometimes across the method triangulation. The reasons of this method’s usage is that the deficiencies of one method is overlooked by the other method.
- Data Management and Analysis Methods
The commencement of the paper takes place with many definitions and assumptions. These assumptions and definitions comprised of all the basic concepts and logic frequently used in the paper. The topic of the paper has also been defined comprehensively. It has been reviewed by the author that the qualitative studies particularly the areas that have been comprehended by the researchers who are having less experienced in their fields are much vulnerable. The inaccuracy of the data was observed when it was exposed to the management. It has further been argued that the information that has been collected on an immediate basis is not at all available to the management for analysis; however the same is required for some processing. The raw data collected from the field may be in the form of notes likely be unclear to the people who are not directly involved with the research. However, this raw data may be understandable and helpful for the researcher. If the data presented to the researcher is in the form of typed one, perfectly edited, extended and also corrected. Same processes are essential for video tapes. In the case of research, the importance of quality and quaintly play a tremendous role in the outcome of the study. It cannot be presumed that either quality or quantity is essential for the study. Both have a significant role. If we compare their importance, then quantity may be daunting over quality. For data gathering, interviews with the persons are the basic technique. The interview details depend on the level of study. As for as the pages used for this purpose is concerned, fifty to hundred single spaced pages can cover six interviews. The researchers have also evaluated that well coherent system for gathering information is required to be in place for effective data analysis. In this context, the main points to be considered are informant’s range, range of potential sites, comparable format to be kept in view for better research. They are of the view that unless these points are in place, the researcher may be in limbo quickly. They said that they had to face the problem of retrieval and storage. In the paper, the importance of data management and its storage has also been discussed. Retrieval of data has also been concentrated properly. Both the storage and retrieval of data is quite significant in order to keep the track of data availability, its flexibility for permitting for usage to others at various time or life cycle of the project. This can be helpful for analyses and documenting the result for the study in order to verify or replicate. A detailed discussion on the subject of retrieval and storage of qualitative data has been made during the discussion.
The qualitative studies can be done after designing it analytically. For this analysis research questions, conceptual framework and definitions may be involved. Data reduction is a crucial aspect of the data analysis. There are concepts of loose and tight designs. Loose designs are unfamiliar and excessively complex where as tight design are those having strong and dell delineated concepts.
In the paper, many solution have been presented by the authors. The main solutions proposed by the author are depicted as under: -
• Sampling decisions made, both within and across cases
The commencement of the study takes place with the decision that that of the sampling method is to be used. There are many methods to collect the data in the form of sample. The main issue is to decide the size of the sample. It depends on the level of detail of the study. The sample size may be small or in groups. Sample may be collected on the basis of gender, geography, culture and socio-economic circumstances.
• Collection operations and instrumentation
The main issues during collection of data are the procedures to be adopted for research. Collection operations refer to the activities carried out for data gathering. These activities comprised of interview with the participants, dependents or relevant stakeholders. For collecting the data and interviewing the stakeholders’ question bank and questioner, is to be formulated. The question bank should be comprised to relevant questions that in-turn provides effective results. The instruments used in collection operations plays a significant role in the study.
• Summary of the Database: size of the summary and how it is produced
The summary is the gist of the study and contains all the relevant records, interpretations and comprehensive conclusion. Similarly, the summary of a database means all the gathered data so far is in comprehensive mode and can be reported in consolidated form. The size of the data base depends upon the research type and level. A detailed study requires huge data to be gathered and stored that can be utilized at any time during the research. The technique used to produce the summary is quite significant. Various reports can be generated by data gathered.
• Software can be used.
Obviously in today’s era without software (in any of the activity) is next to impossible to be carried out. Software is to be defined and designed as per requirement of the data and research. Complicated and highly sophisticated software is needed for the projects of multiple researches. On the other hand, simple software for storage and retrieval of data will fulfill the demand of the research.
• Overview of the analytic strategies
Analysis is the backbone of research. After gathering of relevant data with appropriate data gathering technique, analysis of the data is carried out. The analysis of data is done by using statistical tools and methodologies. At the end of the research overview regarding techniques used in the study, should be carried out to overcome the flows and bottlenecks. The review will help making sound conclusions.
• Inclusion of the key data in research and displaying supporting documents in main conclusions
Conclusion, the gist of the research is a tale end of the study. It has the same significant in the paper as the heart in the body. The conclusion depicts the result of the study. This part of the research reveals the outcome of the study. All the data gathered during the process of research in not depicted in this part. Key data that reflects consequence is to be incorporated in this part. Author is of the view that most of the readers just review the abstract of the research and directly go through the conclusion. It is easily evaluated by the reader about the research after reviewing summary and conclusion. Well elaborated the conclusion better will be the outcome of research.
- Coding
There are many purposes for usage of the manual. Following are the three fundamental purposes of the manual according to the author: -
• One of the major purpose of the manual is to elaborate different functions of writing analytic memo, coding and codes. The manual also explains the utilities of these functions during analytic processes and collection of qualitative data
• Another function is to profile the selected coding methods that is usually used in the analysis of qualitative data
• The third main function of the manual pertains to the readers. The main focus of the reader is to understand the purpose of the research. The manual provides the readers with all the descriptions, sources of data, applications and its recommendation. It also provides an example and activities in order to coding and further analysis of qualitative data.
However, there are some deficiencies in this manual as it does not cater for the issues pertain to design of qualitative research. It also does not furnish the procedures how an interview can be conducted and how observation field work is carried out. On the other hand, these topics have frequently been discussed in other books and manual. However, this manual can be utilized as a reference to existing works. It particularly concentrates of codes & coding. It also focuses that how code and coding play role in qualitative data process. It would be beneficial for those who just have come in the qualitative inquiries. It would help them understanding coding methods. Extended discussions and extra information regarding methods also be available is cited sources. In this manual, one can only find perspectives codes and the coding. For instance; the examples will depicts that, a qualitative research can be categorized a multidisciplinary enterprise that ranges from the art form to social science. There is a huge difference among instructions passed by the researchers. These vary in terms of preferences, allegiance and the prescriptions of conduction the field work. There is also a difference in writing the proposals. In short this manual can be treated as a reference book.
In brief a code can be defined in qualitative inquiry as a word or a single phrase that assigns a salient, summative, evocative attribute and summative attribute for visual data.
Few of the examples described by the author in the paper are given below.
The pattern may be characterized as:
• Similarity (that, in the same way, the things happen)
• Difference (in different ways the actions happened is the difference)
According to the author, the method of collecting the codes as per this manual is repertoire of filters in order to consider and approach the qualitative inquiry. But, the level of involvement of a person as a participant or full member depicts the level of perceiving and coding the data. Codifying process can be defined as a procedure in that the activities are managed. In this process, the things are managed in a manner systematically organized. This will make a system classified in all aspects. In a qualitative data when the codes are used and reused, it means a procedure of codifying is in progress. This process permits the data to get grouped or regrouped or segregated in order to compile the data and consolidate the meaning, etc. There are different categories of coding. Clusters of the coded data are found in some of the categories of codes. These clusters further refine the data into the sub categories. These categories are when compared with one and other; one starts transcending the data and moves towards theoretical, thematic and conceptual techniques.
According to the author, there is a difference between the codes and the themes. In order to elaborate the difference, the author has described various concepts of codes and the themes. It has also been discussed in detail about nature of the data that is coded in the coding mechanics. There are many techniques used in the mechanics of coding. These techniques are comprised of pre coding, data layout, questions for coding, preliminary jottings and contrasting coding data. The number of categories, codes, concepts and themes that are generated in each project vary in its nature. It depends on many factors and most frequently asked question about this variation is that how the codes get used in qualitative data. The reply to this question depends on the nature of the data and the coding method that have been selected for analysis. It also depends on the accuracy and needed detail.
It has been directed in the book that for studies in that compact codes are used, the book specifies a code book as;
- The short description: name of code itself
- The detailed description: description of coded qualities or the properties in few sentences
- The inclusion criteria: conditions of datum or the process that merit code
- The exclusion criteria: particular examples of datum or the process merit the code
- The typical exemplars: examples of the data that represented code
- The atypical exemplars: special instances of data still represent code
- The close but no data: the examples could be mistakenly assigned particular code
In the view point presented by the author, the stakeholders who conduct such research based on community issues are likely to invite the people into a collaborative venture. The basic aim of this invitation is to create a sense of investment and ownership in analysis of data. They also participate in the recommendations and consequence in the social change. In such cases, both team coders and solo participants can be consulted during the analysis. There are certain characteristics a good researcher should possess. These qualities comprised of induction, abduction, deduction, synthesis, logical thinking, evaluation and the critical thinking. Apart from these characteristics seven attributes that qualitative investigators should possess are as under that are pre-requisites for the coding processes.
1. Should possess organized personality
2. Have Exercise perseverance
3. The investigator can deal with an ambiguous situation
4. Have the ability to Exercise flexibility
5. Should have creative ability
6. Rigorously ethical and Honesty is utmost characteristics
7. Extensive vocabulary is required for effective results.
According to the author, there are some of the critiques elaborated by the author as for as the coding is concerned. The important critiques pertain to coding are as under:
• Coding is like reductionist
• Coding refers to be almost objective
• Coding distances some time from data
• Coding is restricted to counting and nothing more
• Coding can be dangerous, violent, and some time destructive
• Coding is one way to analyze the qualitative data
• Coding does not provide a way out
• Coding was considered as an essential part of the study. At times it was desperately used and thought necessary for research.
• Coding with the passage of time is considered inappropriate for research at hand
- Description Analysis Part-I
According to the author, organization and reporting of the data that have been collected and analysis is very important aspect of the study. Reporting of data is on the basis of a descriptive account. The reporting should be done and initiated in systematic and carefully manner in order to identify the key factors and building relationships among the factors. Organization and reporting of data build upon each other. There is another term known as interpretation that comes after reporting of data. Sometimes the interpretation directly comes after organizing the data. As per author point of views, a clear distinguishing among three may be useful for research. It has been strongly recommended and suggested by the author that a clear distinction among these three factors should be kept in a kind as they would be helpful for transforming the observational data. He recommended that irrespective of the way of data collection and either from tap, film or paper, it must be distinguished.
According to the author, the interest of the readers is always to get a concrete point from the study. The reader always is satisfied when the focus is narrow, and the level of the detail is quite relevant and most appropriate. It has been observed by the study that each new point or suggestion in the research create suspicion among the readers, and they think that points are being added up. It is strongly suggested by the author that any relevant data or example can be added in the study while the writing is in progress. During an early phase of the writing, it is easy to incorporate any detail or similar instances and illustrations in the study. Lengthy protocols and relevant questionable details can also be added while the data is being shifted and stored. It is suggested that honesty in identifying the purposes would be helpful. In this context, it is recommended not to be much singular or much academic in case the purposes include the personal motives. For instance, if personal latent aptitude for literary panache is to be indulged, one should admit it at least for him/herself. To judge the descriptive competency of the researcher by an author is a difficult task. Therefore, draft of the paper is presented to the reader to better judge the capability and adequacy of author. The reader is almost unfamiliar with the data and can put a critical review upon the writing. The researchers of the descriptive study face the problem of creating the thing as objective. They put all the things in detail. The qualitative researchers are to be the storytellers. Irrespective of the case study, method of discussion, examination of issues the qualitative researchers are expected to build the cases or draw illustrative examples, derived from the stories.
1. Chronological Order
2. Researcher Order
3. Progressive Focusing
4. Day in the Life
5. Critical or Key Event
6. Plot and Characters
7. Groups in Interaction
8. Follow an the Analytical Framework
9. The "Rashomon Effect"
10. Write a Mystery
As the author of the article states in the paper, there is a bit difference between analysis of tangible and non-tangible data. However, in a technical sense, analysis of non-tangible data is somewhat same as of tangible substances; for example, water, soil, blood or the investment portfolios. It has been expected form any analyst who has been advertised, the direct identification of the elements with accepted standards.
According to the author, analysis is a technique by that the data can scientifically be molded and turn in to desired results. But it is recommended that analysis must be conducted carefully and in a systematic way. Analysis should be based on facts rather hint at fact. The client who has the analytical mind expects this as marked. It has been observed that the results of all the studies conducted on the basis of these analytical terms are accepted by all the stakeholders. This acceptance is known as acceptance of the result with certainty. In this context, the data revealed by this research is subjective, partial and contradictory and offer little basis with certainty.
According to the author, regarding the collection of such data that is required as per procedures is needed to be collected as per the rules. The rules for the collection of the data must be followed. There is ways to maintain the data that has been analyzed, yet it may become academic copout, is to avoid resolving the questions in hand rather than raising the questions. Otherwise, a serious threat regarding regression in inquires may be raised. Consequently, a serious concentration on decision of initiating a research is mandatory. It has also been suggested by the author to conduct a cost benefits analysis before selection and initiation of research.
In the point of view of the author, the analysis as per point of views of the author is termed as general mind set. For instance; if a researcher wants to conduct a conversation without rigors of the conversation, he will have to follow the following points.
1. Highlight his Findings
2. Display his Findings
3. Follow the rules and Report as per Fieldwork "Systematic" Procedures
4. Flesh out Analytical Framework Data Collection
5. to Identify in the data the Patterned Regularities
6. He should compare his case with another similar Case for comparison
7. At the end of the research evaluate its finding lesson learned and future forecasting
8. In Framework of Broader Analytical aspects, the data must be contextualized
9. He should evaluate the results Critique and also review the Processes used critically
10. At the end to Propose Redesign for his Study, if needed
According to the author, interpretation must be conducted at the time when it is needed. It is carried out at any time when needed but it is strongly recommended that the investigator or the researcher must not rush on to it. The desired and important questions should be asked and brain storming on such questions may be kept persistently.
According to the author, there are many ways to interpret the things. Few of them are necessary for all types of analysis and interpretations. The best way to approach the interpretations is suggested by the author. Following are some of the important ways provided by author for approaching the interpretations.
1. Extension of the Analysis
2. First Mark and secondly make Leap
3. Stop the time you have come to the end
4. Do as per rules and policies and also directed by the management
5. Do as per suggestions that are already given after conducting research
6. Turn to the Theory as well
7. Interpretation Itself can also be refocused and reviewed
8. Personal Experience and history can also be utilized for approaching interpretations
9. Interpretive Process must be analyzed in all perspectives of study
10. Finally, the Analytical Process must be interpreted.
- Description Analysis Part-II
According to the author, the more creative a person wants to be while interpreting the data, the more he/she will feel restricted by the academic brought up. It also includes the personal beliefs and feelings. He further states in the paper that the researcher should never give up the efforts of getting a piece of study or research published through submitting the same to a large number of journals, etc. It is also highlighted by the author that if the choice of the journal for publishing an article is considered suitable then the same journal should be approached multiple times until the article gets published through editing appropriately each time.
The main question that is asked and responded by the author in the paper is that if a person finds the requisite distinction in the given categories useful in the research while formulating and presenting the qualitative research study, how is the apportion energy, allotted space and effort is related to these categories? The response, provided by the author himself, indicates that in every question that is directly asked in a qualitative research depends on many factors without having an all-purpose serving answer. However, the author also states that the response may not be completely arbitrary. If multiple factors are considered while responding to the research question then the response can be appropriately obtained.
According to the author, the paramount thing in a research is its purpose. In the case, where the purpose of a research provides useful guidelines to progress with the research, the researcher should be honest in assigning a suitable purpose to their research. This is required to be done in addition to recognizing and admitting the purpose of research to the public. An ethically and morally bad way of conducting research is presented by the author. In the case, where the stated purpose of the research is to highlight a specific area of research through shedding light on a significant and original problem, the researcher stated things that were not exactly true in order to get the research proposal approved.
According to the author, few of the readers thwarted while other maybe happy to find out that author has not allotted DAI ranking to the descriptive chapters. The author has organized the list of the chapters in such a manner that the chapters with descriptive discussion would remain on the top and later on those chapters have been kept with more interpretative discussion. The idea to assign percentage ranking to each of the chapter is not helpful for the researchers in order to be able to transform their qualitative facts and figures. Net persuades the researchers to render comparison in other’s work. According to the author, defending and elaborating different appraisal of given accounts maybe annoying but the real objective is to investigate the worth of the peculiarity instead of striving for greater reliability. The final question is to find out whether the researchers can examine their studies or not. It is not always necessary that readers would find out the same facts what researches intended to project.
References
Conrad, C. F., Haworth, J. G., & Lattuca, L. R. (2001). Data Management and Analysis Methods. In C. F. Conrad, J. G. Haworth, & L. R. Lattuca, Expanding Perspectives (pp. 553-571). London: Pearson Custom Publishing.
Conrad, C. F., Haworth, J. G., & Lattuca, L. R. (2001). Strategies of Multiple Triangulation. In C. F. Conrad, J. G. Haworth, & L. R. Lattuca, Expanding Perspectives (pp. 317-327). London: Pearson Custom Publishing.
Saldanna, J. (2013). An introduction to codes and coding. In J. Saldanna, The Coding Manual for Qualitative Researchers (pp. 1-40). Washington D.C: Sage Publications.
Wolcott, H. (1994). Description, Analysis, and Interpretation in Qualitative Inquiry. Washington D.C.: Sage Publications.
