Introduction
There is a rapid growth in nanotechnology in the medicine sector that will bring advances in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases. The expected applications in medicine include the drug delivery methods both in vivo and vitro diagnostics. The appropriate mechanism of drug deliver is by use of nanotechnology. This technology is viewed as the use of nanometer scale complex systems ranging from 10-1000nm. The whole system does the prevention, treatment, and diagnosing diseases. (Badrealam, and Owais, 2015). Below are some of the methods that are used in the delivery of drugs for the treatment of various body organs. Each method has advantages and disadvantages about its use.
Use of Nanoparticles in Drug Delivery
In delivery, the drug to the body in form of orally is a big challenge. The drug should be delivered to the right place where it is needed to avoid the side effects in other areas where they are not desired. The most common challenging scenario is experienced when treating cancer. In this case, the cancerous growth may be located as distinct metastases in various organs of the body. The feature of non-restricted toxicity limits the use of the therapeutic potential. The use nanoparticles have enabled the delivery of the drug to the right destination in the body organ (Villiers, Aramwit, and Kwon, 2009)
However, the use of this technology has a disadvantage too. Some research shows that the use of nanoparticles to carry drugs reduces the strength or toxicity of the drug. At times, the nanoparticles trapped in some parts of the body like liver poses a threat to the functioning of this organ. Some of the methods used in drug delivery are discussed below;
Polymeric nanoparticles
These are submicron colloidal drug carriers. These carriers are suited for their function because of the physiochemical characteristics that they possess. This includes, the size, surface potential and the hydrophilic-hydrophobic balance. However, this method has a potential challenge in its polymer toxicity and residues from organic solvents. This impairs the efficiency of the polymer drug carrier.
Solid lipid nanoparticles
These particles are made from solid lipids with a mean diameter in a range of 50-100nm and is also an alternate method for polymeric particulate carriers. The main advantage offered by this method is use of lipid drug carriers being a safe approach in human medicine. However, this method is associated with some challenges such as poor long-term stability, low drug loading capacity and premature expulsion of drug caused by polymorphism of lipids (Tiwari, and Tiwari, n.d.)
Use of Microemulsions
These are stable systems that are composed water, oil, and surfactant. The thermodynamic stability is the defining symbol of the emulsion rather than its size. Their droplets sizes go below 100nm. The most important aspect of the micro-emulsions is the phases that contain two liquids that are immiscible and can be stabilized with a surfactant. Micro-emulsions have been suggested as drug delivery systems that enhance the absorption through the biological membranes. This method of drug delivery has some advantages. First, they have the improved solubility and stability of the drugs being conveyed. Secondly, the process of delivery is relatively fast and economical. However, the method has some disadvantages. Firstly, the method releases the incorporated drug prematurely. Secondly, is the problem of phase inversion which poses a threat to the system of delivery. The third demerit is the lack of acceptable pharmaceutical acceptable toxicity profile in the effective surfactants. Lastly, the method requires the establishment of complex systems that will need a lot of time (Villiers, Aramwit, and Kwon, 2009)
General guideline/standard operational procedure for the safe handling and disposal of Nano-particles used or generated in a laboratory for research purposes
Introduction
Nanoparticles are very small particles with the size ranging from 1-00nm. Their sizes make them possess unique chemical and physical properties that generally differed from the parent compound. The research on the potential health threats pertaining the exposure in these particles is lagging behind with the growth of technology. However, some conclusions have been made regarding the health effects of these particles. Firstly, the exposure of these particles causes biological effects that are related to the shape, solubility, size, receptor binding and other factors. Secondly, the Nanoparticles have a larger physical reactivity than the parent compound and normally acts as catalysts in chemical reactions and are a risk to fire and explosions (Marijnissen and Gradón, 2010)
Routes of Exposure
The Nanoparticles can be inhaled, ingested, injected or absorbed through the skin. Larger or small deposits on the mouth, nose or throat can be ingested or swallowed unintentionally and sometimes can be through hand to mouth transfers. The most common route that is of great concern is inhalation. Research has shown that when particles are ingested through inhalation, they enter the bloodstream and are moved to other organs of the body.
High risks of exposure to Nanoparticles
The main area of exposure of these particles is the workplace. Several means of exposure are experienced in these places. First, one is exposed when working with the nanomaterial with no sufficient protection gear such as gloves. Secondly, one could be working with nanomaterial in liquid form during mixing or pouring operations with high rates of agitation. Thirdly, the exposure may result from handling the power form of these materials and generation of the particles in open systems in form of gas. The means of handling include; spraying, weighing and blending. One can also be exposed during maintenance of processes and cleaning equipment used to generate the particles. Another way of exposure is during handling and cleaning of spills that contain the Nanoparticles. Moreover, the exposure mechanism to Nanoparticles includes mechanical processes in disruption of materials containing particles. Such disruption methods are; drilling, machining, sanding and other mechanical disturbances.
Ways and Procedures of Mitigating Hazards
The following approaches are used in handling the Nanoparticles to reduce the levels of exposure and the risks involved.
Engineering controls
The main engineering control strategy of Nanoparticle exposure is through ventilation to prevent exposures via airborne means. Proper ventilation controls must be implemented to minimize the chance of these exposures. The labs that are used to handle Nanomaterial should have a non-circulatory system of ventilation. Pressurization of labs must be hallway negative with the doors and windows kept closed at all times. Additionally, the nanomaterial releasing activities such as needle aspiration of liquids, the opening of samples, cleaning of reaction chamber and weighing of nanomaterial should be done in a glove box, fumed hood, glove bag, biosafety cabinet or any other exhausting enclosure. Furthermore, the exhausts gasses that are generated by reactors, furnaces, or other equipment used to manufacture or process the Nanoparticles should be collected and directed outside the lab through a local ventilation control.
However, the methods of engineering controls are not suitable for Nanomaterial that are Nano composite, encapsulated in a solid, or the surface coated materials unless grinding or cutting is conducted.
Personal Protective Equipment
The following PPEs must be used when handling Nanomaterial to avoid hazardous exposures. Lab coats and impermeable coats having a ribbed cuff makes the appropriate attire during the lab session. These clothing should also be left in the laboratory after work. The arm sleeves should be worn when there is a high level of exposure or solutions of the same are expected in the process. The eye protection is required by using glasses, safety glasses and face shields or chemical splash goggles. At times, during severe conditions an air respirator is used to provide respiratory protection. Another protection is the use of gloves when handling nanomaterial. Sometimes one can have a broken skin which will pose an exposure to the chemicals. Appropriate gloves that are resistant to the chemicals involved should be chosen. Lastly, one should observe good personal hygiene practices. These includes; washing hands after handling chemicals and equipment and before leaving the laboratory (Wolf, and Bollinger, 2013)
Safety work Practices
When working with nanomaterial one should observe safety work practices to avoid exposure. Some of these practices include the following. Risk assessment should be conducted before engaging in work. The physical and chemical characteristics of the materials are first reviewed before handling them. One should also observe the standard hygiene practices which include: avoiding horseplay, keeping working areas clean and uncluttered, reducing contaminations by confining working areas, avoiding mouth pipette, avoiding eating, drinking, smoking or any other reckless behaviors in the workplace.
Spill Management
The primary control of exposure to Nanomaterial during spillage is the seclusion of the spillage area. The evacuation of the affected area is done, and notification to the relevant authority is necessary. The wet method of cleaning are the most appropriate methods of removal of spillage. When the powder material is spilled, the surface of the spilled chemicals is dampened with a compatible liquid such as water, soap or cleaning oil. Careful damping is done to avoid the formation of aerosols. The affected area is wet wiped using a disposable cloth, and the process is repeated using the clean solutions every time until the area is clean. An appropriate protection PPE must be worn when performing the cleaning. (Iwashita, Koga, and Shiratani, 2007)
Waste Management and Disposal
The materials that are normally disposed of as waste materials are; pure nanomaterial, things contaminated with nanomaterial, liquid suspensions, and solid matrices. These materials should be disposed of in the right destination by consulting the environmental and safety agency (EHS) agency and packing all the wastes in double plastic bags to avoid exposure (Xu, Shen, and Li, 2012)
Bibliography
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