Journals
Journals
Ivan Pavlov, a Russian Psychologist, is credited with the introduction of classical conditioning after he decided to shift his attention from digestion to learning. He had observed an interesting phenomenon during his study of the digestive system. That is, a dog starts salivating at the sight of the food. This means that the dog had learnt to associate the sight of food as the same thing as having it in its mouth; because when food was placed in its mouth the same thing happened. Indeed, this phenomenon is not unique to dogs. If one has been used to taking lunch at exactly 1pm every day during the lunch break, one usually starts feeling hungry around the same time every day. The study of classical conditioning has two cardinal elements, which are a conditional stimulus and a conditioned response.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Schedules of reinforcement are rates of reinforcement which can control behavior. There are mainly four in number, which are fixed-interval, fixed-ratio, variable interval, variable ratio. A fixed interval schedule has nothing to do with the responses but the fixed minutes of time. The fixed-ratio depends on the responses made. The time element is variable with regards to variable-interval while variable ratio is based on an average of responses. The schedule of reinforcement is extremely critical in the determination of the effectiveness of responses. For example, if a dog is given food when barks three times, this will encourage and teach it to bring out stable responses. It also provides certainty in the management of phenomenon in order to distinguish it from the rest. The efficiency of controlling behavior using a schedule of reinforcement can be illustrated by the use of slot machines or gambling games.
The Period of the Zygote
It lasts for about two weeks. The fertilization of the egg occurs in the fallopian tube and soon afterwards it drifts to the uterine wall. This leads to the formation of a blastocyst out of about 60 to 70 cells. The blastocyst is attached to the uterine wall between the seventh to the ninth day. The implantation process occurs when it burrows deep into the lining of the uterus attaching itself there. The amniotic fluid functions as the cushion and temperature regulator. The zygote is attached to the uterus by the placenta, which is a special and unique organ that ensures the cardinal exchange between the mother and the zygote. The placenta is joined to the zygote by the umbilical cord. The zygote is extremely delicate. This explains the 70% rate of survival.
The Period of the Fetus
The fetus is the last stage of the development that a baby goes through in the uterus. It is the last stage of the pregnancy and it is characterized by complex developmental stages. It begins during the third month, meaning it the longest stage of the pregnancy. Body systems begin to get connected and organized. It is very risky to attempt an abortion during this stage. It puts the life of the mother in danger. However, with specialized medical care, it is still possible to procure an abortion. The twelfth week is critical. The fetus grows external genitals thus its sex can be determined. The effects of a premature birth occurring between 22 and 26 weeks can be mitigated and the baby survives. Babies are born facing down. Thus fetus has to change positions a few days before the date of birth. Before birth the fetus has to develop its own protective mechanism for the harsh environment outside the uterus. A layer of fat thus develops under the skin to regulate temperature.
Human Memory
Memory is selective. Therefore, one may not necessarily remember what they want to remember at a specific time. Perhaps this explains the conundrum students face in examination rooms. That’s despite having studied something; it can easily skip one’s mind only to be recalled later when one it is no longer useful. There are three cardinal processes in memory. These are encoding, storage and retrieval. The human memory can be equated to a computer system. They fundamentally share the same processes, which is keying in data, saving it and retrieving the data later to the monitor. The three processes are systematic and must follow each other. Memory encodes using the senses. All the five senses are involving in coding memory. However, some of the senses may be stronger than others in a certain case thus overwhelming other senses. Furthermore, the memory also selects what to encode, what to save and what to retrieve. It is not automatic that everything perceived by the senses will be selected by the memory. That is where nobody bothers remembering how a penny locks like.
Memory Storage
There are three memory stores, which are long-term, short-term and sensory memory. The sensory memory preserves information in its original form for a brief period of time. It is the fleeting impression of perception. It is that memory that lingers for a brief time after stimulation. This is the best kind of memory. It is extremely accurate. Short-term memory has a limited capacity, about 20 seconds unrehearsed. Long-term memory is unlimited in both scope and capacity.
References
Kalat, J. W. (2012). Biological Psychology. New York: Cengage Learning.
Castro, F. G., Barrera Jr., M., & Steiker, H. ( 2010). Issues and Challenges in the Design of Culturally Adapted Evidence-Based Interventions. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, Vol. 6: 213-239.
Kalat, J. W. (2013). Introduction to Psychology. New York: Cengage Learning.
Nevid, J. S. (2008). Psychology: Concepts and Applications. New York: Cengage Learning.
Weiten, W. (2011). Psychology: Themes and Variations, 9th ed.: Themes and Variations. New York: Cengage Learning.
