Explain how IQ is computed. List and describe the theories of intelligence.
IQ aka intelligence quotient is a score of a multitude of standardized tests done to evaluate intelligence. Back in 1905, a French psychologist named Alfred Binet established the IQ test. The IQ score reflects our analytical and cognitive skills. In IQ calculation, through a group of standardized tests our mental age is determined and then it is divided by our physical age and finally the result is multiplied by 100. For instance, if Tom's physical age is 24 and his IQ test result shows that his mental age is 28, then his IQ score would be about 116. According to the IQ scale used in assessing intelligence, the IQ of an average man varies between 85 and 115. Above than that score would be considered above average or genius. For instance, Albert Einstein's IQ was an all-time high at 160 and so he was a genius.
Theories of Intelligence
Intelligence is the most discussed topic in psychology but there is no definite answer as to what forms intelligence. Some of the most significant theories of intelligence include the following:
- Theory of General Intelligence:
The theory of general intelligence was developed by an English psychologist Charles Spearman who believed that a single entity called the 'g' factor or general intelligence determines a person's cognitive ability. He used a technique called factor analysis to evaluate a range of mental aptitude tests and came up with the finding that the variance in scores of all mental aptitude tests is attributed to the difference in general ability or intelligence of people.
- Theory of Multiple Intelligences:
Dr. Howard Gardner, the founder of the theory of Multiple Intelligences (MI) believed that numerical calculation of human intelligence is not the right way to determine one's analytical and cognitive abilities. He proposed that people are endowed with nine kinds of intelligence which determine their ability of executing things. These nine intelligences include the ability to use language, the ability to apply logic in solving mathematical puzzles, the ability to play with music, bodily intelligence, spatial intelligence, the ability to understand others, the ability to understand one's own self, existential intelligence and naturalistic intelligence.
- Theory of Primary Mental Abilities:
Louis L. Thurstone, an American psychologist opposed the theory of Spearman's single entity of 'g' factor theory and produced the theory of primary mental abilities. He said that there are seven primary mental abilities attributing to our cognitive function and these seven abilities include reasoning, spatial visualization, numerical ability, fluency of words, associative memory, numerical ability and perpetual speed.
- Triarchic Theory of Intelligence:
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence was developed by Robert Sternberg who divided intelligence fundamentally into three aspects: Analytical, Creative and Practical. Analytical intelligence is reflected in ability to solve a problem. Creative intelligence helps us innovate ideas and solve a new problem with the help of our skills and previous experiences and Practical intelligence denotes our adaptive ability to a new surroundings.
Define stress, including the role of cognitive appraisal and coping strategies.
Anything that subjects us to feel threatened about our well-being is a stress. Richard Stanley Lazarus and Susan Folkman have described stress as something that occurs when the balance between demands and resources falters and when the “pressure exceeds one's perceived ability to cope” (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984b, p. 19). Our perception of stress is called cognitive appraisal of stress which involves two processes - primary and secondary appraisals.
- Primary Appraisal
Under primary appraisal, a situation can be looked upon as stressful, positive or impertinent. The stressful situations are segmented into beneficial and challenging and threat and loss. A challenging situation that results in some benefits is a good stress because this stress motivates us for our personal growth. Threatening situation that poses danger to one's personal well-being and results in physical injuries or death of beloved person or loss of properties or other personal loss is a bad stress. Bad stress contributes to anxiety and depression.
- Secondary Appraisal and Coping Strategies
Secondary appraisals denote one's coping strategies to deal with a stressful situation. The coping mechanism to deal with a stressful event is identified in psychology as coping skill. Coping skill is categorized into three kinds - appraisal focused, problem focused and emotion focused. Appraisal focused coping skill involves alteration of one's views about a stressful event. The victim here goes into self-denial and tries to find a humor side in the situation. Problem focused approach to deal with stress involves efforts directed at eliminating the root cause of the stress. A person then collects information and acquires relevant resources to manage the problem and finish the source of the stress. Emotion focused approach is aimed at changing one's emotional reaction to a stressful event. For instance, a person may indulge in venting out of pent-up emotions, or in meditation and other relaxation tactics to defuse the stress.
Summarize the key elements of the major personality theories discussed in the text.
Type Theory
Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung is the father of type theory of personality. Jung identified four cognitive functions including sensing, intuiting, thinking and feeling as the driving force of our cognitive ability. He recognized eight cognitive processes to prove how these four cognitive functions are interrelated. His theory came up with the finding that out of these eight cognitive processes, only two processes influence the overall cognitive ability of a person and out of these two processes, the dominant one defines our personality. For example, if the 'Extraverted thinking' process dominates the 'introverted sensing' process of someone, then the person is likely to be extravert and if it is the other way round then the person would tend to be introvert. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator or MBTI that is so popularly used for defining our personality type is based on Jung's type theory.
Trait Theory
In the subject of personality, the trait theory contributes to the fact that individual personalities are a combination of certain characteristic dispositions. Some of the notable trait theories include the following:
- Trait Theory of Gordon Allport
Psychologist Gordon Allport divided personality traits into three categories: Cardinal traits, Central traits and Secondary traits. Cardinal traits refer to the most dominating traits of one's personality. Central traits are not as dominant as cardinal traits but they form the core of one's personality like intelligent, talkative, shy etc. Secondary traits refer to the attitudinal and behavioral pattern of an individual.
- Eysenck’s Trait Theory
Hans Eysenck, a British psychologist formulated a theory of three dimensions of personality on the basis of three traits:
- Introversion/Extraversion
- Neuroticism/Emotional Stability
- Psychoticism
- Big Five
Lewis Goldberg developed the theory of five dimensions of personality which is also known as 'Big Five'. These five dimensions include the following:
- Conscientiousness
- Extraversion
- Openness to Experience
- Agreeableness
- Neuroticism
Psychodynamic therapy
Psychodynamic therapy proposes the fact that the human mind is divided into unconscious and conscious beings. Conscious mind is constituted of our current thought process and the objects of our attention. Unconscious mind is the repository of painful memories, secret cravings and unfulfilled desires that the conscious mind is not aware of. In order to keep these painful thoughts at bay, the mind relies on the defense mechanisms of identification, repression, denial, rationalization, regression, displacement and so on. Some of the psychologists whose contributions to the development of psychodynamic therapy is undeniable include Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson, Carl Jung, Anna Freud among others.
Humanistic Theories
Humanistic psychologists opine that the ability of people to think rationally and control their desires play a significant role in their behavioral pattern. Two humanistic psychologists noted for their humanistic theories are Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. Maslow emphasized on the self-actualization need of humans after satisfying their basic needs. Self-actualization refers to the efforts undertaken to meet one's full potential. Maslow based his studies on illustrious personalities including Eleanor Roosevelt and Abraham Lincoln to find out how people with extraordinary ability utilize their full potential to achieve their goals. Carl Roger’s humanistic theory takes into account how people view themselves. However, people's perception about themselves not necessarily matches with the reality. For example, a person may view himself as an honest man but he might lie to his wife for covering his mistake. Rogers then made use of the terms congruence and incongruence to point out the discrepancy and accuracy of one's self-perception with the reality.
Describe Freud's theory of personality development and the role of the id, ego, and superego.
Freudian theory of personality development is the most famous, yet the most controversial. According to him, the development of human personality is completed in certain stages where the child becomes aware of his or her sexual organ. His theory of psychosexual development related to Oedipal complex and Electra complex are the most controversial in this regard. The Oedipus complex is related to the psychosexual development of a boy and the Electra complex is related to that of girls. Sigmund Freud believes that there are three fundamental principles of psychical machinery: the id, the ego and the superego.
The Id
The id is the inherited component, the basic instincts that are present within us at birth. The id consists of intrinsic biological constituents including sex drive or Eros and Thanatos or the destructive death instinct. The psyche of a newborn child is all id. The id is not driven by any logic or reality of the everyday world. It demands immediate gratification of all our biological needs and cravings in the unfulfillment of which, a state of tension and anxiety could plague our minds. For example, if the hunger of an infant is not met immediately, he will cry until he is fed.
The Ego
As the child begins to interact with the outside world, it develops the second component of psyche, the ego. Unlike id which is illogical and unreasonable, the ego is realistic and reasonable. The ego is governed by principle of reality and hence ego knows that every action has its reaction. So ego conforms to social rules weighing the pros and cons before committing an action.
Superego
Superego is that aspect of our psyche which operates on the basis of moral and idealistic values inculcated by one's parents and the environment. Superego controls the instinctive impulses of id especially those concerned with sex and aggression. Superego is governed by the sense of right and wrong, ethical and unethical values. It operates in the conscious, preconscious and unconscious mind. Superego has two parts - conscience and the ideal self. Conscience reprimands actions that are not acceptable by the society and generates a feeling of guilt and remorse within us. The ideal self, on the other hand, allows the psyche to bask in pleasure and pride over an achievement that is admired by the society.
Work Cited
Cherry, Kendra. Theories of Intelligence, About.com, Retrieved on 6th June 2013 from <http://psychology.about.com/od/cognitivepsychology/p/intelligence.htm>
Lazarus, R. & Folkman, S. Stress, appraisal, and coping, Springer Publishing Company, 1984, New York
Schwarzer, Ralf. Stress and Coping Resources: Theory and Review, Retrieved on 6th June 2013 from <http://userpage.fu-berlin.de/~gesund/publicat/ehps_cd/health/stress.htm>
