Introduction
The complex mysteries of the brain have been the subject of constant debate, intrigue and controversy for many years. Over the last few decades, the mysteries on the working of the brain have started to be more clearly understood. Neuropsychology is at the forefront of making this possible through technological advancements in imaging. Neuropsychology is the study of how the brain and its complex components impact on behavior (Hartlage, Lawrence and Long 3). Neuropsychology also comprises of studying how behavior is affected by brain function. In this science, the function of the brain is evaluated through objective testing of the memory as well as thinking skills. This paper examines the history, the major contributors and the progress made in the field of neuropsychology.
Neuropsychology has a long history. The earliest contributors to the field of neuropsychology were Hippocrates, Galen and Descartes. Early in the 400 BC, Hippocrates observed that there may be a correlation between how people behave with their anatomy (Long n.p.). Later on, Galen noted that the anatomical traits that impacted on human behavior could be linked to the brain. Rene Descartes proposed that some sort of animal spirits flowed through the nerves causing behavior (Hartlage, Lawrence and Long 3). This came to be later known as the mechanist perspective of behavior.
The next major contributor to the field was Gall (1758-1828). He postulated that the brain was composed of separate organs, each with the responsibility to handle a particular psychological trait (Long n.p.). According to him, traits such as combativeness, memory, cognitive ability and perception of color were assigned to specific organs in the brain. This is what was known as phrenology. Gall also argued that the development of cerebral organs led to prominences in the skull which could be analyzed to know the subjects mental strengths and intelligence in a science known as cranioscopy. In the late 19th century, there were more complex empirical methodologies which laid the groundwork underpinning current neuropsychology practices and knowledge. This included the works of Paul Broca (1824-1880) in the mid-nineteenth century whose studies were based on the effect of brain damage on human behavior. Broca often performed autopsies after people with brain anomalies had died. An example of this is that of a man known as “Tan”. He was so called because “tan” was all he said when he attempted to speak. Broca performed an autopsy on him after he died and discovered that the frontal cortex of his brain was severely damaged (Long n.p.). This portion of the brain was responsible for speech. Studies such as this developed into what is known today as the localization theory. The theory holds that specific regions of the brain are responsible for specific functions in the body.
Wernicke (1848-1903) further developed the work of Broca and studied cases in which patients who had lesions on their superior posterior sections of the left hemisphere had difficulties with speech. He later developed the component process localization doctrine. This doctrine holds that advanced mental functions such as language are comprised of subcomponent processes in different parts of the brain (Long n.p.).
Today, neuropsychology has made advancements in a remarkable way. After the discovery of imaging technology in the 1950s, research findings from brain physiology and cognitive psychology were developed into the field of neuropsychology. Underpinned by the studies into component process localization, neuropsychologists have linked biochemical processes and cognitive functions as being coordinated by the brain. Neuroimaging has made these studies possible. It includes various imaging technologies that can portray brain structures as well as functions of living subjects in a visual format. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), Positron Emission Tomography (PET), Computerised Tomography (CT) and functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging are some of the commonly used techniques. These imaging methods enable researchers to study the brain in its course of performing tasks without intruding. Current researchers also apply these technologies in mapping out how the brain responds to emotions such as happiness, sadness, anger and fear.
Today, there are several areas in which neuropsychology expertise is applied. These include stroke, autism, Alzheimer’s disease, multiple sclerosis, Tourette syndrome, impact of AIDS on cognitive function, learning disabilities and emotional and social disorders. There are two main areas in the field of neuropsychology. These are clinical neuropsychology and cognitive neuropsychology. Clinical neuropsychology comprises of the assessment and treatment of patients with head injuries, stroke and other neurological disorders (Vygotsky and Luria 177). On the other hand, cognitive neuropsychology comprises of research and empirical studies on people with brain function anomalies.
Conclusion
Neuropsychology is the study of how the brain and its complex components impact on behavior. The earliest contributors to the field of neuropsychology were Hippocrates, Galen and Descartes. These were the first people to associate behavior with brain function. Further research was conducted by Gall (1758-1828), whose theory that the brain had constituent organs responsible for specified traits led to the sciences known as phrenology and cranioscopy. Broca (1824-1880) and Wernicke (1848-1903) then developed the component process localization doctrine. Today, several imaging technologies have made brain studies less intrusive in that the brains of living subjects can be studied as they perform different functions.
Work cited
Hartlage, Lawrence C. , and Charles J. Long . "Development of Neuropsychology as a Professional Psychological Specialty: History, Training, and Credentialing." Handbook of Clinical Child Neuropsychology 3.2 (2009): 3-18 . Print.
Long, C J . "History of Neuropsychology." Neuropsychology & Behavioral Neuroscience. Version 1. C J Long, 1 Jan. 2012. Web. 13 Nov. 2013. <http://neuro.psyc.memphis.edu/neuropsyc/np-history.htm>.
Vygotsky , L.S. , and A.R. Luria. "Foundations of Neuropsychology." Journal of Russian and East European Psychology 4.3 (2003): 159–190. Print.
