In the United Sates, law enforcement is highly effective, and it is respected well internationally. However, the composition of law enforcement in the United States is among the most complex in the world. The early modern police departments in the United States were modeled after their predecessors in England. The United Sates law enforcement agencies adopted the mission of crime prevention and control, the preventative patrol idea, and the quasi-military organizational structure, which had been early London model (Walker & Katz, 2012). Other significant concepts that were borrowed from England incorporated the local control of police agencies and limits on authority provided to police and governments.
Unlike most Western nations, the United Sates does not have a national police agency. In the United States, law enforcement if fundamentally controlled by the executive branch of government at the following four judicial levels: municipal, county, state and federal. Even though most United States’ law enforcement agencies are found at the municipal level, every jurisdiction has a variety of law enforcement agencies responsible for enforcing its laws. Because of the issue of local governmental control of police agencies, there is little uniformity among all states, federal and local enforcement jurisdiction regarding names, organizational structure, function, and authority, particularly at the city and country level. In addition, local control contributes to the widespread disparity in United Sates law enforcement regarding the quality of services, budget expenditure, and professional standards.
Topical Area (Local Police Department)
Local law enforcement or local police cover a large area of law enforcement employee in the United Sates, including metropolitan police and sheriff’s office. Cities operate metropolitan police departments, certain large countries, town, and villages and are led or managed by a police commissioner or chief who is appointed by the executive of the locality. The office of a sheriff officer is operated by counties and are led or managed by a popularly elected sheriff. Officers in police departments are called police officers. Police protection is primarily a local responsibility. For the past few decades, local governments have spent almost 70 percent of the total police expenditures in the United Sates, and local police spending represents about 33 percent of the nation’s total justice expenditure. Most local law enforcement agencies are small, but larger agencies employ the majority of the local police. Departments that have less than ten full-time officers accounted for 53 percent of all agencies but employ 6 percent of all officers
The largest local department is the New York Police Department (NYPD), with almost 35,025 sworn officers. Followed by Chicago local police department with nearly 15,354 sworn employees; approximately one of every six full-time local police officers in the United States work for these forces. Among municipal police departments in 2007, the sworn law enforcement employee average was 2.3 percent; departments serving 25,000 to 99,000 residents had the homelessness, alcoholism, unemployment, drug addiction, and child abuse (Brady & Phenix, 2007). Since the terrorist bombing of September 11, 2011, the police departments have had to handle increasing problems that associated with terrorism facing the cities. In addition, local department is highly visible because of their size, complexity, budgets and innovative programs. Not only do they attempt to take control of criminal cases, but the local department police also deal with serious issues for maintenance of public order and solving of quality –of life issues for neighborhood residents. The police additionally deal with social problems that other public and private agencies either cannot or will not handle. When there is a problem, for example, citizens usually do not call the mayor's office –they instead call 911.
Challenge with Topical Area (High Crime Rate)
Through the 1980s and 1990, rising rates of public disorder and crime continued unbeatable for New York Police Department. The 1980s, however, saw the emergence of “crack epidemic” accompanied by violent crime and signs that showed public disorder as literature proliferated and graffiti. Life quality in New York City continued to be a declining one as crime and violence took the better part of the city. The year 1990 reflected almost 2,245 murders. The substantial effort of made by NYPD by introducing community policing principles in the late 1990s and 1980sand even though somehow some crime scenes were reported in 1993, the new philosophy had impacts overall on crime, and public disorder was negligible(Greene, 1999).
In 1994, when police commissioner William Bratton reverted the Department, the first major inroads against crime and disorder were achieved. He improved and reengineered the organization that dramatically realigned the structure of bureaucratic and accompanied it with the introduction of a new policing philosophy. Bratton streamlined the agency in 1944 and 1995, bringing change to the culture of management through getting deeper into the rank and promotion of the agency’s very best managers to executive levels and charged them with the responsibility of fighting aggressively disorder and crime. A sequence of crime control and life quality strategies was developing, and implementation of these approaches was at a greater effect. Bratton additionally obtained the merge with both Housing Policy Department and Transit Police Department, which were separate and anonymous agencies since they were formed in the 1950s and 1960 and he introduced a new management style known as COMPSTAT.
With the help of computer technology, analyzing crime in time with the help of statistics and highly effective crime mapping strategies and technique were effective. The introduction of COMPSTAT in the year 1994 revolutionized the NYPD and brought about dramatic change and reduction of criminal cases, to a point that New York City could be considered the safest town in the nation (Willis & Weisburd, 2007). Instances such as homicide were no longer available from 1994 to 2004 when the level reduced to 73 percent, and more than 76 percent from their high point in 1990. The overall crime percentage in New York City since 1963 to date stands at its lowest point. This abrupt change is attributed widely attributed by COMPSTAT management process of NYPD, which has been broadly emulated by other local police agencies.
Internal or External Stakeholders
Engaging internal and external stakeholders in the process of a crime scene has always proved essential. There should be some balance between priorities of police manager, police officer, and community residents. Protégé development system must already lead into the promotion of stronger alignment between all stakeholders in the protégée development process. For criminal justice and law enforcement application, internal stakeholders have the responsibility of monitoring the criminal investigation. Thinking beyond the development skills in investigative techniques for internal stakeholders contributes to their ability to develop a system level of organizational requirement and expectation of the criminal investigation. Working with prosecutors, identifying the multitude of internal and external information resources and many systematic comments will influence how well stakeholders perform their role.
It is also possible that external stakeholders, who by definition are outsiders, are more susceptible to influence from the media on high-profile criminal incidences, as well as to gang units lore from criminal unit officers and others inside the police department. Such information sources, in addition to their work related contacts with gang members, may have caused external stakeholders to perceive the criminal issue as more serious. Within the investigation of criminal activities, internal and external stakeholders are considered to be much more focused on the types of crime engaged in criminal groups within the city. In particular, the consensus among the external and internal stakeholders that control criminal in the city that involves heavily drug sales, drug trafficking, and associated violence is effectively dealt with.
Social glue involves strategies that bring members of a community together to take responsibility for their street, block organization, or town (Welch, 2012). For example, neighbors may plan social events or learn new methods to deal with crime risks. In motivating individuals, I can ensure the one social glue strategy that can be used is problem-based learning. This educational technique has its roots in adult education where facilitators support stakeholders to develop their hands- on training seminars. They learn preventive principles by constructing actual solutions to real problems in their neighbors, all the while creating connections between each other. The connections that learn subsequently forge using problem-based learning have the value of including internal or external stakeholders who have influenced to make positive changes.
Impacts of Technology
Even though towards the end of the twentieth century, crime rate appeared to be decreasing in many advanced western democracies. Overall, the rates remain unacceptably high. Besides, insofar as crime decreased in the 1990s, there is no clear explanation of how these took place. However, the implementation of technology has had profound impacts on the rate of crime controlling strategies. The more active criminal justice functionaries are in surveillance, arrest, and prosecution, the greater potential for negative impact on individual privacy rights. In the contemporary context, dramatic changes have occurred in both the legitimate and criminal practices (Garicano & Heaton, 2010). Since the transformation of global technology, commerce, and communication, the interaction among people around the world has been on a significant change compared to the previous times. Criminal justice officials and criminals worldwide have all been affected by the advancements.
Not only are the authorities using more technology to investigate crime and monitor offenders, but globalization effects have also showed the modern crime in profound ways. Criminal actors increasingly communicate transact business and coordinate the trafficking of illicit goods using advanced technologies. On the other hand, this has extended their reach, opened fresh criminal markets and formed new disreputable relationships; on the other, it has spawned new types of criminal activity. Contemporary, transitional crime and global terrorism have transformed the meaning of crime and criminal evidence, leading criminal justice officials to alter their methods of investigation and prosecution. As police find themselves engaging in a more complex investigation approach, more specifically involving electronic evidence or illicit transnational activity, their action has had a different impact on privacy—criminal justice relationship. In the sense, new privacy paradigm has brought about changes in crime and technology. Essentially, treats and crime fighting technologies have changed the role of surveillance in not only attempting to prevent criminal cases but enable the way criminal justice officials perceive suspects. Surveillance, however, has played a critical part in ensuring criminal cases is controlled.
In my opinion, technology changes everything, crime included. The internet has created a completely new environment in which crime, such as fraud, identity and theft can now take new forms and prosper. Globalization, partly the product of new technology, if implemented can open up vast opportunities for controlling crimes such as credit card forgery, money laundering, and terrorism. It can further control crimes with the implementation of deliveries such as face recognition software, global positioning devices, radio frequency identification tags to mention but a few. This new environment of crime and crime control has radical implications for criminology. The need for these approaches has long been apparent and has only been made more obvious by advancing technology.
Research Problem
The primary use of geographic information system for law enforcement agencies has been in the areas of describing crime issues or patterns and considering factors that are highly correlated in the production of crime. The step for law enforcement and researchers lies in the area of predicting crime. The projective or inferential analyzes estimate where crime is likely to occur based on a series of factors. For instance, in case selling of drugs are likely to increase as the number of rental properties increases in an area, one a particular threshold has been passed the law enforcement teams can begin their survey by paying very close attention to an area to prevent the possible increase in drug sales. Through, identifying series of factors that relate to the production of crime, analysts can assist low enforcement to deter the development of problem areas.
Such type of work is exemplified by the research of George Rengert and his associates (2005). They provided a suggestion that analysts could predict where drug market would possibly develop based on the presence of a fence. Fences buy stole properties and are necessary for the drug users who steal properties to sell them and then use the cash obtained to purchase drugs, hence a chain of crime activities. However, if the fence locations are identified earlier, one can predict where the property crime might take place and where drug sales are likely to happen. These pieces of information can assist the law enforcement team in maintaining a watch over fences to deter the increase of crime activities and definitely of drug marketing.
Effective and Efficient Solution (Plan)
Identifying patterns of crime has important accountability implication. District and precinct commanders are, to some extent, held responsible for any crime that occurs in their district. As patterns of crime develop, law enforcement officers want to know what their district commanders are doing to resolve these problems. Among the best examples of this accountability exists in New York City is known as Comp Stat program (Corman & Mocan, 2000). These computerized statistic program began in 1994 and had been replicated or adopted by many law enforcement departments. District commanders attend to a weekly or biweekly meeting where crime maps of their district are projected on a screen. A police administrator then identifies the crime patterns that exist in the district and asks the district commander how they are handling the specific issue. Other district commanders can provide advice concerning programs that have succeeded or failed to address that similar issue. Therefore, district commanders are held accountable for crime in their areas, and they are provided with series of possible solutions to the issue so that they do not have to “reinvent the wheel” in all police districts.
However, in case, a district does not adequately address the issue, a different person who will be in a position to try different tactics may replace them. Comp Sat and similar procedures for the police to male data provided decision and be more efficient with their resources. The success of CompStat in New York inspired agencies all over the United Sates to design their version. Therefore, its effectiveness will be of high chances. The other procedure that could be implemented is the identification approach of mapping Hotspots. A Hot Spot is considered a small section or area, address, or region of city or county that has an unusual concentration, or a clustering of particular crime activity. Crime often maps present host spots as an ellipse around a region, a brightly colored street block, or a symbol over an address. Hotspot signals officers to be focused on the areas or indicate a need for some program or initiative to resolve the problem. One of the tens of problem-oriented policing is that police agencies should leverage intelligence, such as tips from informants or business owners, with initiatives to combat crime.
Methods of Assessment
In addition, the increase of database capacity and access to records, other technologic changes can have significant impacts on the way police departments examine and respond to crime. The development and adaptation of geographic information system (GIS) technologies across the law enforcement agencies can increase the efficiency of plotting crimes for visual assessments. GIS technology allows agencies to map a greater amount of information in limited time and creates the ability to share information between colleagues as well as other relevant departments. Also, it increases the knowledge and ability to respond effectively to crime.
In conclusion, like other social institutions, policing has evolved over time. There has been a tremendous change in both the number of law enforcement agencies and their functions. These statistics touch on the enormity and complexity of modern policing in the United States. The change will continue as policing is influenced by social environment –forces that constantly reshape policing from its bureaucratic organization to specific policing strategies. Crime is not evenly distributed geographically but instead is clustered in specific locales that generate half of all criminal activities. A policing strategy responding to such information focuses policing efforts on these places and attempts to identify and resolve the underlying issues that create the clustering of crime. Finally, power is similar to authority but includes the possibility of meeting resistance, which will be defeated without compassion. Police use all the elements of control, but the ultimate right to use force is what makes police unique and what allows the police to function successfully.
Reference
Brady, K. P., Balmer, S., & Phenix, D. (2007). School—Police Partnership Effectiveness in Urban Schools: An Analysis of New York City's Impact Schools Initiative. Education and Urban Society, 39(4), 455-478.
Corman, H., & Mocan, H. N. (2000). A time-series analysis of crime, deterrence, and drug abuse in New York City The American economic review, 90(3), 584-604
Greene, J. A. (1999). Zero tolerance: A case study of police policies and practices in New York City. Crime & Delinquency, 45(2), 171-187.
Garicano, L., & Heaton, P. (2010). Information technology, organization, and productivity in the public sector: evidence from police departments Journal of Labor Economics, 28(1), 167-201
Rengert, G. F., Ratcliffe, J., & Chakravorty, S. (2005). Policing illegal drug markets: geographic approaches to crime reduction Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press
Rossmo, D. K. (2005). Geographic heuristics or shortcuts to failure?: response to Snook et al. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 19(5), 651-654.
Walker, S., & Katz, C. M. (2012). Police in America McGraw-Hill
Willis, J. J., Mastrofski, S. D., & Weisburd, D. (2007). Making sense of COMPSTAT: A theory‐based analysis of organizational change in three police departments Law & Society Review, 41(1), 147-188
Welch, E. W. (2012). The relationship between transparent and participative government: A study of local governments in the United States International Review of Administrative Sciences, 78(1), 93-115
