Despite the evolution of gender equality issues, there are still great differences between the educational goals and occupations held by both genders. Governmental programs in various countries have been designed to lure more women into fields that have been dominated by men, such as scientific and technological-based careers (Watt & Eccles, 2012). Some of these programs include the Workplace Gender Equality Act of 2012 in Australia, the Government Action Plan for Gender Equality in Finland, and even a program aimed at promoting gender equality in the workforce within developing countries. Yet, despite these programs, there still remains a large disparity between the genders represented in various occupations, which can lead to a bigger issue of wage inequality. Perhaps by examining the theories researchers have developed in order to address the psychology behind gender and occupations we can better understand the phenomenon involved and why it remains in the present day.
Influences during Childhood
In a 2005 report, it was noted that among both the developed and underdeveloped countries, women are represented inadequately in the realms of education, health, social status, opportunities, and even legal rights (Moheyuddin, 2005). Knowing that a lack of educational opportunities have the ability to influence other areas of one’s life, including future employment possibilities, it is important to examine where the breakdown inequality begins. Children are inundated with images of what they should want to play with, read about, and desire to become when they grow up, and such exposure can influence their goals later in life. Influence can come in a variety of mediums, from toy commercials aired on a television channel devoted to children (Nickelodeon Network) depicting boys playing outside and engaged in competitive play (Kahlenberg & Hein, 2010), to books in which the female characters failed to identify or express any career goals, are more apt to portray submissive, passive, and dependent roles (Taylor, 2003). By presenting and imprinting such gender role stereotypes upon impressionable children, allowing it to influence their imagination, play, and beliefs, their aspired social roles, including desired occupation may feel the effects well into their adult lives.
Another area of influence on gender roles which perpetuates the gender role stereotype within the professional and occupational roles consists of advertisements. But rather than the commercials aimed at children or involving scantily clad women, which are equally as damaging, instead educational advertisements that are meant to give an accurate representation of the workplace usually contribute to facilitate the inequalities seen at higher and more prestigious positions. Even when the advertisements are geared toward children, boys are often shown as smart and confident computer users, while girls are usually included in the background of the advertisements, used merely as decorations (Bolliger, 2008).
In the classroom, where the playing field is supposed to be level when it comes to gender roles, children are experiencing gender stereotypes, which can influence their mental performance. Research into the stereotype activation revealed that when a negative gender stereotype is present, the academic performance of that particular gender decreases (Neuburger, Jansen, Heil, & Quaiser-Pohl, 2012). When children under the age of 12 years were told either that the boys would do better on a task than girls, or vice versa, the academic performance decreased in the groups that were told that they would perform worse on the task, thus possibly becoming a self-fulfilling prophecy, as the tasks were, in reality, able to be mastered, regardless of gender. However, if academic performance can be influenced by a mere mention of one gender doing better than the other, could the same approach work to help in facilitating female academic performance in subjects that are usually dominated and pursued by males? In order to answer such a question, researchers examined the ability to reverse gender stereotypes within the classroom through a counter-stereotype approach. Known as the Pygmalion or Rosenthal effect, the phenomenon posits that the greater expectation placed upon an individual, the better they perform. The Pygmalion effect, proposed by Rosenthal in 1973, consists of four factors, which includes both verbal and non-verbal styles of communication, consisting of climate, feedback, input, and output. However, the Pygmalion effect can be countered by “anti-Pygmalion-effect” students within the educational domain, in which outside factors, such as student motivation, social role expectation, and social supports can counter the high expectation of achievement placed on students, thus not meeting the teacher’s ideal (Chang, 2011). Thus, the educational domain may only play a small role in the educational and occupational achievements when it comes to the gender differences in certain academic and professional arenas.
Influences in Adulthood
The transition from adolescence to adulthood can play a large role when it comes to which career goal or occupation is pursued, especially if the gender stereotypes have been imprinted during the impressionable early and teen years of development. One commonality among the majority of career development theories suggest that the social-contextual events and experiences in one’s life, such as gender and ethnic background, can influence not only the career goals, but the aspirations and skill development of individuals (Messersmith, Garrett, Davis-Kean, Malanchuk, & Eccles, 2008).
Career Development Theories
There are a variety of theories that set out to address the complex topic of career development, falling into one of three categories: theory of process, theory of content, and theory of content and process. Each category focuses on unique character aspects of an individual, either how they change over time, the context in which they live and socialize within, and a combination of the two, content and process. The three theories of career development that will be assessed for the role they play according to gender and occupation choice will consist of Parsons’ Trait and Factor, Holland’s Theory of Career Choice, and Lent’s Social Cognitive Career Theory.
Trait and Factor Theory of Occupational Choice
Parsons’ proposed a theory of occupational choice, which depended on gaining accurate knowledge about one’s self, as well as thorough knowledge about the specifications of the job and the ability to make an accurate match between the two factors. It was suggested that through developing a clear understanding of one’s self, aptitudes, abilities, interests, and ambitions, as well as limitations, it would be possible to match up job traits with individual traits. If there was a good match, it would be possible to predict the level of job success and satisfaction (Parsons, 1909).
While Parsons’ theory appears to make sense, it may not present an accurate picture when it comes to the differences between the genders and occupational choice. If gender stereotyping is present, it can influence the occupational choices, particularly where the social factors associated with gender are concerned. In examining the Big Five personality traits along with gender, researchers revealed that strong gender stereotyping effects are present in the work environments that also report the strongest sex-typed employment.
Holland’s Theory of Career Choice
Branching off of Parsons’ theory of occupational choice, the Holland Theory of Career Choice (1992) also incorporates personality traits and relies on an individual having an accurate idea of their strengths and desires. As such, according to Holland (1992), vocational interests are an extension and expression of personality traits, which are developed through the influences of heredity, social cues in the environment, and competencies. Holland’s Theory of Career Choice consists of six different personality traits or types, each corresponding to careers that would best be suited for the skills, behaviors, and personality. The six types include Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional. According to Holland’s theory, by assessing the personality type through a series of questions, finding the right fit in both employment and environment is possible, leaving the employee and employer both satisfied. Additionally, by finding the right blend of personalities within the work environment, the working relationships can be fruitful.
Researchers applying Holland’s theory to examine the role gender plays in the development of vocational interests revealed that gender plays a large role, influencing the development of vocational interests and career choices (Woods & Hampson, 2010). The examination of traditional gender-typed occupations suggest that individuals who pursue opposite-gendered careers were less likely to remain in their chosen profession, despite enjoying and excelling in their unconventional occupational role (Farmer, Wardrop, Anderson, & Risinger, 1995). Additionally, previous research has suggested that the Theory of Career Choice is stable over time and consistent when assessing different genders and across multiple racial and cultural backgrounds.
The Social Cognitive Career Theory
The Social Cognitive Career Theory is a multifaceted approach that attempts to explain the complex theoretical framework behind vocational interest and the cognitive process of decision making. Branching off of Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory, the Social Cognitive Career Theory combines cognitive aspects, such as self-efficacy in relation to goal attainment, self-esteem and sense of self worth, with the application of how environmental characteristics, such as culture, social context, and even gender roles. According to the Social Cognitive Career Theory, career choices are influenced by the aforementioned variables, as well as refined through four major sources of influence: personal performance and accomplishments, vicarious learning, social persuasion, and physiological states and reactions to events and/or experiences (Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 1987).
The Social Cognitive Career Theory has been applied in the past to assess the possible influence gender has when it comes to academic and vocational interests, as well as the selection and pursuit of goals can be career-relevant. Previous research has found that it is an effective measure across the genders when it comes to assessing vocational goals. Researchers evaluating the role gender has in academic interest have utilized the Social Cognitive Career Theory when assessing the university majors of engineering, computer science, and math disciplines, it was discovered that the levels of self-efficacy served as a predictive outcome in the realms of expectations, interests, and goal achievement, with men reporting higher levels of self-efficacy expectations when compared to their female student counterparts (Gainor & Lent, 1998). These findings were confirmed more recently, with a 2008 study that found that male undergraduates reported higher levels of self-efficacy and more positive outcome expectations in math and science courses when compared to female undergraduate students (Byars-Wiston & Fouad, 2008). Through female students not reporting high levels of self-efficacy when it comes to engineering, computer science, and math disciplines, it can limit their career choices in the future. However, by nurturing the belief in their capability to attain goals within these realms when the students are younger, they may be able to achieve a successful outcome in pursuing typically male-dominated fields and areas of study.
Conclusion and Final Thoughts
While the assessments contained within this essay are not conclusive nor fully encompassing of the issue of gender and occupational choice, upon evaluation of the various theories that have attempted to address the complex relationship between the role individual and contextual factors play in the attainment of certain career goals, it remains evident that not one theory can fully explain the numerous variations that contribute to occupation selection. However, there are some aspects of gender that appear to be key players when it comes to the career paths chosen. But a good place to start when it comes to assessing gender roles and society is the influence placed from outside forces, such as the media, printed publications, and even teachers. Aside from the cultural and gender differences, many children in the early education environment are equipped with the same tools and should, in theory, be able to accomplish tasks, despite the gender role attached to the project. However, as indicated in the current paper, such is not the case. If we, as a society, truly aim for gender equality within the workforce, steps need to be taken in order to achieve the goal.
Starting with the media, if nobody watches, buys, or reads what is being sold, then there will cease to be a market for the warped views that are fed to the developing minds of children. In a world of supply and demand, in theory, if there is no demand, the supply will cease from being fulfilled. Teachers also need to be cognizant about what message they are sending to their students, as the research referenced in the current paper suggests that being told that you will succeed increases the likelihood of a positive outcome. Perhaps by giving children the support and nurturing while they are young, they truly can achieve their dreams, despite the categories society places the gender roles and career aspirations within.
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