Question 1: Wolf refers to ‘a collaboration between the war-making rulers and the merchant class’ (Wolf p.101, p.5 of Unit Reader) and ‘a political coalition between the centralizing executive and the merchant class’ (Wolf p.109, p. 9 of Unit Reader). Explain what those phrases mean, and illustrate what those alliances did, by referring to three different European regions described by Wolf.
Wolf begins with an explanation of the reason behind the collaborations between the merchants and the ruling class as states expanded their influence and merchants gained new frontiers of trade. For example, the Mediterranean region had long connections with the Southeast Asia as balances of power shifted from the western side to the advantage of their eastern counterparts. The roman empire also had a great influence on trade and operations of the trade. The Mediterranean region was divided between Islam and Christendom, Islam was spreading rapidly as Muslim armies spread most of the trade. This overshadowed the operations of European long distance traders although they did not disappear. Agricultural revolution led to increased yields intensifying and expanding trade and town life.
The 9th century oversaw the introduction of new competitors into the trade as port and cities developed along the Italian coastline. Among the most important cities were Venice first emerging as minor intermediaries in the trade. However, they build on their initial positions of middlemen gradually intensifying their influence on the trade. The 10th century there were two other Italian ports that embarked on a commercial and military expansion in reaction to the Islamic invasion of their fishing boats. The rise of Italian ports to importance in the trade led to political consolidation of the rural Hinterland south and North of the Alps. The collapse of Rome is attributed to the damage to its legal and its political structures leading to the development of new political-economic organization.
After political consolidation, the second strategy involved commercialization of products which led to surpluses in trade. The trade led to the formation of merchant’s federations and companies who paid taxes that ensured supply of resources for military operations. The trade also led to the making and expansion of new states reversing the relation between the east and the west Europe. The East dominated, while the west was impoverished.
Q2. Alfred Crosby quotes another historian J.H.Parry, as saying that in order for Europe to ‘discover’ worlds beyond it; Europe first had to ‘discover the sea’. Explain what ‘Discovering the sea’ meant in practice.
Discovering the sea entails an adventurous journey or conquest with the sole purpose of ascertaining what exists beyond the horizon that exists beyond what the eye can see. The phrase mainly projects the conquests and exploits of great explorers including Vasco DA Gama, Christopher Columbus and Cheng Ho. These famous explorers set sail amidst tough climatic conditions including raging storms and gusting winds causing high calamity risks, injury and to some extent death in severe cases.
The phrase discovering the sea conceals much more information per se. These adventures and exploits were aimed at amassing wealth believed to be harbored in countries overseas. None of the voyages in the past was because of humanitarian cause or based on peaceful exploits. To a certain extent, coercion and warfare characterized the expeditions. Huge ships carrying thousands of crew members, fully loaded with ammunition to last them a few months characterized their main luggage.
The sea is mainly harbored by winds of different stature, force, the intensity and origin. The Atlantic Ocean, the pacific and Indian oceans are prone to winds originating from different areas of the world. Discovering the sea mainly entails having an understanding of the winds and properly navigating them in order to discover new places, cultures, wealth and diversity of countries beyond. J.H. Parry associates discovery of the sea to a horrendous yet exciting activity, which demands courage, dedication and vigor. The prowess of the sailor cum adventurer in the voyage determines the success of the conquest. Moreover, he points out that in most cases the winds determine the destination of the voyagers, hence dictating their destinations and outcome thereof.
Q3. What ideas influenced the French approach to Empire and in what ways were those ideas confirmed or refuted by French experiences of running their colonies
The French were strategic in their conquests especially in countries they colonized. Special emphasis on the strategic location, natural resources, culture and race ensured that they engaged in colonies, which had potential for investments and security. Infrastructure and services associated therein is an important facet of any colonizing nation hence the Empire provided the French with numerous opportunities including investment and land.
The French laid much emphasis on the colonial landscape of the Empire. The potential of the environment and natural resources encouraged the French introduce new species of crops and animals to increase the agricultural threshold and potential of the Empire. The French influence on the empire definitely affected the culture and identities of the colonized individuals. The empire benefitted immensely from the construction of health facilities and schools, which increased the literacy levels and improved their access to quality health services.
The utilization of land by the colonial government was instrumental because government offices needed to be constructed, amenities for the colonialists, health facilities, schools and military barracks were also equally important. Moreover, churches and shops were equally important for the provision of social amenities and more essentially provide the residents of the empire with a religious affiliation and subscription.
Although laws are put in place to preserve the French influence on the empire and other colonized nations, the government in Paris enforced the law through delegation of authority to army commanders and chiefs. Citizenship and political representation of the indigenous people in the Empire was still a contentious issue only handled by the higher authority upon deliberation and mediation.
Q4. What were the advantages and disadvantages of building railway systems, from the point of view of Asian nationalists? Give examples
Building of railway lines in the past entailed a rigorous process involving intensive labor work force and capital requirements. During this period, the Chinese relied heavily on inland shipping and steamboats as the major form of transportation. These forms of transport were much cheaper, affordable and resourceful in the sense that the majority of the Chinese locals would be employed in this sector. The Chinese people faced a lot of pressure especially due to the construction of railway lines across their country. Leaders aired different opinions on whether the construction of a railway line would reap more advantages than disadvantages.
Hesitation arose from the precinct of creating unemployment and eroding of Chinese cultural values. The cultural values and beliefs of the Chinese people were affected in regards to destruction of graves and villages to create way for the railway line. Furthermore, many people would suffer from unemployment in the Chinese transport industry. Investment in the construction of a railway line demands foreign loans and competent personnel from foreign countries hence potential lack of employment of the Chinese people.
The advantages of a railway line network range from economic benefits to scenic appreciation. An advanced rod network is likely to open up rural areas in China by encouraging trade, tourism and adventurous activities, which will channel funds, and communication networks in the area. Moreover, the railway line is beneficial to the military because it helps in aiding warfare exploits in the remote parts of the country. Trade and the economic outlook of China definitely improved because of the sporadic railway network traversing the country. Moreover, the railway line opened up parts of the country that were inaccessible through traditional forms of transport available in China at the time.
List of References
Nabokov, V.1971. Ada or Ardor: A Family chronicle. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Parry, J. H. 1981. The Discovery of the Sea. Berkeley: University of Carlifornia.
Said, E. W. 1993. Culture and Imperialism. London: John Wiley& Sons.
Wolf, E. 1982. Europe, prelude to expansion’ in Wolf, E.R. Europe and the People without History , 101-125.
