Art and Architecture
The Representation of David in the Sculpture by Bernini
Gina Lorenzo Bernini was born in Italy in 1598. His artistic talents were recognized when he was very young. Lubow (2008) reports that Bernini was only eight years old when he “carved a stone head that was ‘the marvel of everyone’ who saw it” (p. 77). Throughout Bernini’s life he accomplished great works of art, including paintings, sculptures and the creation of great fountains throughout Rome. Bernini was always involved with making art from an early age until he died at the age of 82. One of his great sculptures is of David from the story of David and Goliath . The sculpture demonstrates a skilled use of space and movement that had never been accomplished in Western art before. The Biblical David was thought to be the second king of Israel; he was a popular theme for three other great sculptors: Michelangelo, Donatello, and Verrocchio. Each sculpted David in their own style reflected in many ways the culture of the period in which they lived. Bernini could not avoid being compared with these great artists. He was also influenced by them although he transcended the way their art displayed representations of the human figure.
The artistic period known as the European Baroque period is considered to have lasted about fifty years from 1650 to 1700. In 1650 Bernini was in his early fifties; so Bernini was alive turning the transition between Late Renaissance and early European Baroque. His lifetime also coincided with the Counter-Reformation of the Catholic Church also known as the Catholic Revival or the Catholic Reformation. Bernini was a great artist and he understood that he needed to sell his art in order to be able to continue as working artist. He could not offend the religious authorities if he wanted to work freely. Bernini understood the cultural transition happening in the Catholic Church and his understanding can be deduced by some of the characteristics of his sculpture David.
Bernini’s David Evolution from Earlier Works
The Catholic Reformation was particularly influential in Rome, Italy because the Vatican was located immediately next to Rome. Baroque art was embraced, created and distributed from two of Italy’s great art centers: Rome and Venice. Perhaps Baroque Art is thought of as being heavy and dark but during the last half of the Seventeenth Century the impact of the Catholic Reformation can be observed in the art created at the time. The Catholic Church was allowing more mystically spiritual writings and teachings in their religious canons. The Catholic masses were becoming more ritualized or one could say the masses were becoming more theatrical. The Priests took advantage of the space available to move around more during the mass. Biblical subjects and themes were very popular during this period of Catholic Reformation. The teachings from the Bible were being somewhat redefined in order to take on different spiritual meanings but religious subjects were popular because the Church ordained that religious art was acceptable. So the last part of the Baroque Period (which progressed into Rococo) produced art that was more mystical and was full of subjects from the Bible.
The priests performing rituals in the Catholic mass during worship took advantage of the space available and used it to their theatrical advantage. Bernini’s David also takes advantage of the space surrounding the sculpture so that that the figure seems to be just at the second before movement will take place. In fact, one could think of the space surrounding the sculpture as part of the art because it is so important to the sensed movement. Bernini is famous for his creative and innovative use of space particularly compared to sculptors who had come before him. For example his David, a life size sculpture, is represented at the point just before he released a rock from his sling to attack the giant Goliath. The viewer can anticipate the stone leaving the sling when looking at the sculpture. The face of David is etched with strong emotion which could be described as a theatrical expression - especially compared with other sculptures which were created previously. The strength of Bernini’s David’s emotions are shown clearly in contrast to the white marble material used to create the sculpture. Martin (1977) does not say that Bernini’s David’s strong emotions are theatrical but instead describes them as “intense emotionalism” (p. 77-78). Martin pointed out that Bernini was very young when he sculpted David. Interestingly Bernini was about 25 years old. The David of Bernini’s sculpture was also about 25 years of age. Martin suggests the possibility that David’s emotions mirrored the emotions Bernini was feeling at that point in his life. Bernini was considered a valuable and respected Italian citizen. Lubow explained that Bernini was “a highly original thinker, not merely a consummate craftsman” (2008, p. 79). In all of his sculptures he had a superior talent for representing deep emotions and showing the unique qualities of his subjects; he captured “the essence of his subject’s personality as well as appearance” (Lubow, 2008, p. 78).
Donatello (1386 – 1466)
Donatello was also from Italy although from the city of Florence. Donatello’s sculpture was also very theatrical but for a much different reason: the head of Goliath is lying at David’s feet. His David seems weak. Donatello’s David is very slender, without muscular arms. Although the battle was over and Goliath’s head was lying at David’s feet – David’s ability to accomplish such a task still seems unlikely. David has a vacant or dreamy look on his face as he looks down at Goliath’s head. David’s features seem almost real but idealized. David does not take up much space, his arms are close to his torso and his legs are not spread far apart. David seems to be ‘closed’ and uses his space very efficiently, not needing much space. Everything is close to the human figure. For example the big, seemingly heavy sword is at rest by his side. There is a particular message Donatello wanted to convey about the culture of his time which Fichner-Rathus explains.
We are amazed, from the appearance of this young boy, that he could have done such a deed, much as David seems incredulous as he glances down toward his body. What David lacks in stature he has made up in intellect, faith, and courage. His fate was in his own hands – one of the ideals of the Renaissance man. (Fichner-Rathus ,200, p. 267)
And it is true that instead of looking out and back at the viewer Donatello’s David is looking downward, not staring but with a non-intense look. His features are clear but the face could be of anyone. His mouth shows neither an upwards or a downwards tilt. It is the tilt of his head and his downcast eyes that given the impression that he is dazed about what has just happened. The only thing David is wearing is a hat with a laurel wreath on top, so this is a nude male figure showing no evidence that this boy has passed puberty, he is still slender and has no hair on his chest or on his chin. Under the plain straw hat David has long curled locks. Donatello’s David was “the first free standing, life-size nude since Classical antiquity, poised in the same contrapposto stance as the victorious athletes of Greece and Rome” (Fichner-Rathus, 2008, p. 378).
Verrocchio (1435 - 1488)
Verrocchio’s David was made from bronze in about 1470. Verrocchio was a goldsmith so he was very skillful working with metal. He created the sculpture of David because he had been commissioned by the Medici family. Fichner-Rathus (2010) explains that the Medici’s also owned the David which Donatello had sculpted. This then set up somewhat of a competition for Verrocchio to do something unique and perhaps even better (p. 368). Verrocchio’s David is a very young, slender man; or maybe he is even still just a boy. David is looking straight out at the viewers from his sculpture with his left hand on his hip. The left elbow is pointed straight out to the side so that the forearm and the upper arm are shaped like the pointed end of an arrow. His right arm is relaxed and next to his side an in his right hand is a short sword.
David is dressed in a fancily decorated short tunic. The emblems decorating the tunic show David to be from the Middle East; they emblems are “orientalizing motifs” (Fichner-Rathus, 2010, p. 369). Although the tunic has a neckline and decorative front David’s navel and ribs are clearly visible which demonstrates the influence of Classicism on Verrocchio. David’s arms are noticeably thin. Both Donatello and Verrocchio chose to sculpt David as an “adolescent” but Verrocchio sculpted David with self-confidence and pride (Fichner-Rathus, 2010, p. 368). Verrocchio’s David seems a year or so older than Donatello’s David.
Verrocchio’s David stands in a cocky or maybe some would say in an arrogant way. His legs are spread apart so his feet are like bookends to either side of the long, curly flowing hair on Goliath’s head. David’s left knee is slightly bent forward. Verrocchio therefore is using up more space than Donatello’s David felt the need to use; but like Donatello’s David there is no movement implied in the sculpture. Fichner-Rathus (2008) explains that “Donatello’s graceful pose has been replaced, in the Verrocchio by a jaunty contrapposto that enhances David’s image of self-confidence” (p. 369). Contrapposto is an Italian word for counterpose. It means that the posture of the figure has its hips and its legs turned away from center. David’s right leg is tense because it is holding the weight of the body while the left leg is lifted a small amount (the knee pointing outward) but the leg is relaxed. There is no tension to the knee bend; it is a free drop because of the slightly lifted foot. Michelangelo’s David is also standing contrapposto.
Michelangelo (1475 – 1564)
Michelangelo had captured the artistic passions of Italians about one hundred years before the same thing happened with Bernini. Michelangelo like Bernini was a passionate artist and also like Bernini was well-loved by the people. Both artists shared their art in public places, redecorating whole cities in the process. Like Michelangelo, who had transformed Rome before, Bernina decorated Rome with Baroque magnificence in the fountains, the piazzas, and the monuments he created. Pope Paul V met Bernini during Bernini’s childhood and exclaimed “We hope that this youth will become the Michelangelo of his century” (Lubow, 2008, p. 77). This comparison was enjoyed and promoted by Bernini throughout his lifetime. (Lubow, 2008)
Michelangelo’s David was sculpted as a strong, confident young man waiting before the battle with Goliath had started. Michelangelo’s David is definitely a man, not an adolescent. His David was specifically designed for a public space and was not a realistic height, but instead a height that towered over the viewers. His David is standing in the contrapposta, but he is very different than Donatello’s young ‘jaunty’ David or Verrocchio’s peasant David. Michelangelo’s David is tall (like a giant, himself) and imposing, waiting with tensed muscles to start the battle. The marble that David is sculpted in seems to be a part of the human tension, or to take on some anthropological features because David is highly muscled. Even some of his veins are tight in anticipation of the fight against Goliath. There is no emotion in David’s face all the emotion is explained through his body, how he stands, how his muscles are tense yet how seemingly relaxed he seems overall. Part of this is the Classical influence of the style of the sculpture because the body is nude, as in Classicism. The subject is presented as somehow above human ‘vulgar’ human emotions.
Influence of the Counter-Reformation efforts of the Catholic Church
There were four major undertakings of the church reform movement. First there was the change to the ritual of the mass and the way the duties of the priests were to be performed with the worshippers. Young men were sent to seminaries to learn how Catholic priests were supposed to perform their tasks during the worship services. Another purpose of training priests at seminary schools was so that they would learn and understand the spirituality of the Catholic teachings. They would have to reach a certain level of knowledge and understanding so that they could successfully graduate by receiving their orders. The seminaries were filled with future priests in order to teach them the way to live a spiritual life. They also learned how to perform the new rituals that were designed to embrace the reforms and be visible demonstrations of the reforms. The three other parts of the Catholic Reformation included (a) the activities of religious orders, (b) the spiritual movements that would be considered acceptable, and (c) the political interests of the reforms. The religious view was changed so that the Church teachings were allowed to contain mysticism.
Bernini’s David mirrors the counter-reformation movement of the Catholic Church in several ways. The ritualistic changes involved allowing the priests to move around and make use of the space in the nave while leading worship services and while preparing to offer the communion (blessed wine and bread). The way that Bernini’s David is a reflection of this change is how Bernini allows David to take up so much space,not only by the shape of the sculpted marble but also because the space around the sculpture is important. David is not passively standing still or relaxed in any way. Bernini’s David is an example of how marble can miraculously be used to create an object of movement. Mysticism or spirituality was evident in some of Bernini’s other work which portrayed miraculous moments or a Saint’s inspirational influence. His Ecstasy of Saint Teresa which he created during the years of 1645 to 1652 is a good example of this. Bernini has the statue placed under natural sky light and then adds rays of manmade (painted ) light to emphasize the brightness or the epiphany he is portraying for St. Teresa. In the David he sculpted the spiritual characteristic could be considered the strong, courageous, faith David showed in the face of such a daunting enemy as Goliath. The political policies of the church were demonstrated by how the carried out the Catholic Inquisition which was a very terrible and frightening event for the people of that time. Bernini’s work shows how he used his good relationship with the pope starting at a young age (when Bernini was a child) and did the same the rest of his life. Bernini sculpted religious figures, his work was designed for many churches and he also sculpted busts of the popes. The sculptures of the popes were said to be almost real they were so life like but the point here is that they were complimentary to the pope who was being represented. Bernini’s David was a character from the Bible. The sculpture visually signaled a change in the artistic culture although religious figures were still being used as subjects.
Also notice that Bernini’s David was not nude. That was a ruling by the Church that nude figures in sculpture and painting were not acceptable. On the other hand Bernini’s David was not fully clothed. Bernini draped David’s body with a large cloth that covered almost half of the figure. But the left half of the body was nude from the shoulder down to the bare feet. In order to break the viewer’s line of vision so that David would not be viewed up and down easily, Bernini added a basket immediately above David’s left hip. The basket was kept on David’s body because it was hung over his right shoulder and attached with a cloth which was thicker than a rope but still allowed some of the muscles of David’s torso to be seen. Also the cloth that was draping the body of David allowed the muscular legs and their stance to be clearly viewed. This is important because David is passing power from his legs to his sling so the stone will go far. His legs are also set widely apart so that although he is still balanced he is taking up the space he needs to position himself for a successful attack on Goliath. Even though the Church had new policies on nudity in art, Bernini was able to use the rules to his advantage and even enhance his figures because of the challenge. The reformation caused many new rules ordering what art could or could not portray. For example artists were not allowed to represent anything that might be interpreted as paganism or as Classicism. Nudity was never allowed. It would only be allowed if there were reasons based on scripture to do so; and the Church would decide when the scriptural reasons were strong enough. The sculptures, drawings or paintings were never to be worshipped; only the people depicted in the art could be worshipped.
Conclusion
Bernini understood the cultural transition happening in the Catholic Church and his understanding can be deducted from his sculpture of David. Bernini’s David reflects the period of Catholic Reformation in the way that it uses more space, just as priests are doing in the ritual mass, and also by showing more emotion, in fact showing passion. David’s face is dark with emotion. He looks as if his intention is to seriously hurt Goliath by focusing all his anger and courage on the stone and the power he will put on his sling shot. And that is when the viewer realizes the most important difference that Bernini’s David has from the other three examples: the viewer is waiting, expecting David to move. The viewer would not be at all surprised if the stone was hurled by the sling shot at that very movement because the sense of movement in the sculpture is so strong. Lubow (2008) described Bernini’s David as being very different from either Donatello’s or Michelangelo’s David. Rather depict David before or after the battle, “Bernini chose the most dramatic moment-when David is about to let fly the stone from his taut sling-shot; Bernini’s method was to seize and freeze the revelatory moment” (p. 80). Therefore Bernini sculpted David within the boundaries of his contemporary culture and within the new rules from the Catholic Church.
References
Fichner-Rathus, L. (2010). Thinking and Writing about Art. 10th Ed. Boston, MA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Fiero, G. K. (1997). Catholic Reformation and the Baroque Style. Chapter 20, The Humanistic Tradition Book4 :Faith, Reason, and Power in the Early Modern World. 3rd Ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill
Lubow, A. (2008). Bernini’s Genius: The Baroque master animated 17th-century Rome with his astonishing sculpture and architecture. Smithsonian. Vol. October, pp. 76-83
Martin, J. R. (1977). Baroque. New York, NY: Harper & Row.
Zitzlsperger, P. (2011). Bernini’s bust of Pope Gregory XV: The reception of a magic portrait cult. Sculpture Journal, 20(2): 223-238.
