Incarceration of Women
The number of incarcerated women has increased at a dramatic rate in many US correctional institutions (Talvi, 2007). The increased rise in the number of women in prisons can be attributed to increased cases of minor property crime and change in sentencing policies such as mandatory prison sentences. The Bureau of Prisons is an arm of the Department of Justice in the United States. The bureau consists of 6 regional centers, nine divisions and the National Institute of Correction (Talvi, 2007). The jurisdiction of the Institute of Correction covers community correctional facilities, jails, prisons and the academy for training prison staff. Federal prisoners are individuals who are awaiting trial or have been convicted of crimes which violate federal laws. Individuals found guilty of breaking local or state laws are convicted within the city, county or state jails. These jails are operated by the local government. They are allowed to confine individuals awaiting adjunctions and convicts with prison terms shorter than 1 year. Federal and state prisons hold individuals with terms extending longer than 1 year.
The correctional system is composed of 2,994 local jails, 1,378 state prisons and 94 federal jails (Sharp, 2010). Out of the federal jails, only 4 are designated for female prisoners. Four other facilities are shared between male and female convicts while 9 are used as administrative facilities. There are about 65 state facilities allocated to women only. Additionally, there are about 56 educational facilities which are co-shared by male and female offenders.
The American criminal justice systems holds over one million women behind bars. Women are currently the largest group of the population within the prison system. The number of women prisoners has increased twice as much as the number of male prisoners since 1985 (Sharp, 2010). The growth in the number of female prisoners has been attributed to stricter drug laws which severe penalties for those found guilty of violating them. The war on drugs and drug use has gained great momentum in the United States. As a result, many recreational drug users have ended up in prison for offences that were treated mildly two decades ago. This has put a lot of pressure on prison staff and facilities which were developed to contain male convicts.
The unprecedented ballooning of the number of female prisoners found the prison system unprepared. Female prisoners have special needs which are not catered for in the male dominated prison system. Female prisoners come with a myriad of physical, psychological and social needs. Unlike men, women have to deal with menstruation, pregnancy, children, spouses and other socio-economic issues that do not affect male prisoners. The overall psychological impact of incarceration is greater in females than males because of their multiple gender roles.
Literature
Hatton and Fisher (2008) argues that changed US policies such as the war on drugs, mandatory minimum sentencing laws, reduced use of parole, and “three strikes” legislation as being the causative factors behind the unprecedented increase in the number of incarcerated women. The development of all-female institution is perhaps one of the most important developments in improving the conditions of women in prisons. The housing of women in separate units within male institutions subject women to sexual and physical abuse. Sharp (2010) argues that women received minimal services not mentioning the increased number of pregnancies. Alfred and Chlup (2009) argue that welfare and prison reforms play a critical roles in shaping the public understanding of incarcerated women. They further argue that there is the need to conduct a detailed study to unearth the underlying political, socio-historical, and economic causes for the increased number of incarcerated women in Prison.
Hatton and Fisher (2008) argue that the incarceration of women in prison reflects racial/ethnic disparities with African-American women having a higher prison/jail rate as compared to their white counterparts. The racial/ethnic disparities are also consistent across ages of imprisoned women. Other important challenges posted by Hatton and Fisher (2008) include the increased prevalence of chronic mental and physical health problems among incarcerated women. The U.S Bureau of Statistics published a report that showed that nearly half of all prisoners suffer from mental problems. These mental problems included mania, major depression, and psychotic disorders. Other challenges suffered by incarcerated women include high rates of infections, limited access to healthcare, and severe drug and alcohol usage (Hatton and Fisher, 2008).
In terms of health problems, prison institutions are concerned with the management of mental crises and symptoms instead of concentrating in facilitation recovery and building of skills needed for improving the independence and enhancement of quality life. Mental illnesses subject incarcerated women to adverse consequences thereby interrupting their abilities to concentrate in overcoming the challenges of the new environment. As such, incarcerated women end up suffering from increased infractions and disciplinary problems, harsh punishment such as prolonged isolation and longer sentences, and at times suicide attempts.
While many studies have focused on the labor consequences of incarcerated men, Lalonde and Cho (2008) focuses their study on the social and economic consequences of incarcerated women with particular focus on the effects it has on subsequent employment of women. Lalonde and Cho (2008) desire to study the employment effects caused due to incarceration were due to the effects of the custodial nature of women and less severity of offenses committed by male offenders. Other significant challenges associated with incarceration of women include, poor educational results among children, instability in family relationships, and social problems such as stigma. Children of incarcerated women are termed as the forgotten victims of imprisonment.
Discussion and Explanation on the nature of Incarcerated women in Prison
Research has shown that women have difficulty adjusting to prison life because they tend to maintain family structures even within the prison. Women try to bond with each other and maintain friendly relations similar to those in the free society. On the other hand, male prisoners enter the system equipped with defensive mechanisms such as isolation, gang membership and excessive aggressive behavior towards others. The demographics of prisoners reveal some interesting facts regarding the current population of female prisoners. The women entering the correctional system are susceptible to crime because of their socio-economical background. 40% of the convictions were drug related, while 34.5% of incarcerations were attributed to non- violent crime such as burglary, fraud and larceny (Sharp, 2010). About 18 % of all female convicts were put away for violent such as murder and manslaughter while 7 % was because crimes related to public disorder such as drunk driving and vagrancy. Some women were also put back in prison for failing to adhere to their probation and parole terms. This was especially true for women with drug related health issues and parole terms that prohibiting the parolee from committing new crimes.
Many women in the prison system have experienced some form of abuse or trauma which affected their behavior. By examining data on the family history and the mental health history of women convicts, it is possible to identify causal relationships between family background and criminal behavior. Most of the women come from dysfunctional families. They come from homes in which one or both of their parents had been incarcerated while they were growing up. 10% 0f female prisoners reported that their mothers had been in prison while 18 % reported that their fathers had been in the system. Only 4% reported that both parents had been imprisoned. It was interesting to note that 8% of the prisoners knew of a grandparent who had been imprisoned (Howard, et al (2009). Others have one or more siblings who have been through the correctional system.
Another common family characteristic is drug abuse. Many female prisoners come from homes in which one or both parents and other members of the nuclear family struggled with alcoholism and substance abuse. At least 46.8 % of all female prisoners responded in the affirmative on the question of the presence of alcoholism and substance abuse in the family. Other key family issues identified were divorce and separation. Two thirds of the women in American prisons came from broken homes. At least 50% of female convicts ran away from their homes before they were 18years old. 45% of these women cited hunger and parental brutality and poverty as their reason for running away (Sharp, 2010). Two thirds of the female prisoners some form of abuse within the family. The types of abuse range from verbal insults to physical violence. In an alarming revelation, 56.1 % of the respondents reported that they had gone through sexual abuse as children.
Given the difficult family background that most female prisoners have, it is not surprise that many of the women suffer from some form of mental health condition. Previous studies had revealed that at least 50% of women prisoners have mental health disorders caused by their childhood abuse and substance abuse (Braithwaite, Treadwell, and Arriola, 2005). The combination of abuse and drug use in incarcerated women give rise to complex healthcare issues that require a multidisciplinary approach to tackle. Childhood trauma was linked to depression and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (Braithwaite, Treadwell, and Arriola, 2005). Drug abuse only emerged as an escape route and a source of income for most of the affected women.
Drug abuse features prominently as the main reason for the growing numbers of women prisoners. As stated earlier. The fervent federal efforts to curtail the sale and use of drugs have nabbed more women than men. This is because women are affected by trauma more strongly than men. 35.5 percent of female prisoners reported that they used alcohol daily before being incarcerated. Marijuana was the most widely used recreational drug. 57.8% of the women reported to have used it several times a week (Braithwaite, Treadwell, and Arriola, 2005). Methamphetamine and cocaine were also reported as some of the commonly used recreational drugs. A comparison between the family histories and drug use show a link between adverse childhood experiences and drug abuse.
The prison system has not been able to meet the mental health issues, reproductive health and their effect of motherhood and other family demands. Both men and women suffer from mental health issues while in prison (Braithwaite, Treadwell, and Arriola, 2005). The difference is that each one of the genders suffers from different types of disorders. Men typically experience antisocial behavior and substance abuse. On the other, women experience anxiety disorders and mood related conditions. Women in prison are more receptive to psychiatric analysis and treatment while in hospital. The only challenge faced by prison mental health officers is that there is limited research on the mental health needs of women prisoners. This means that the healthcare workers are unable to prescribe medication and conduct therapy more accurately (Braithwaite, Treadwell, and Arriola, 2005). Women tend to suffer from several mental conditions at the same time which tend to worsen in the confined environment of prison.
Substance abuse is another major issue in the prison system. 60% of prisoners have some form of dependence on drugs. Prison administrators have to provide treatment for addiction while ensuring that the prisoners are not exposed to contraband which is often present in prisons. Presently, 20% of state prisoners and 12.5% of federal prisoners are rehabilitation services within the prison system (Braithwaite, Treadwell, and Arriola, 2005). Female prisoners typically committed their crimes to finance their drug addiction. In comparison, male prisoners reported that they were under the influence of drugs while committing the crimes they were convicted for. The prison system considers rehabilitation treatment as a healthcare service as opposed to a correctional approach similar to incarceration. This means that treatment for addiction is more of an optional service as opposed to a mandatory requirement for all individuals with a history of substance abuse.
Female prisoners face another major threat of sexual abuse within the jails. The bureau of Justice reported about 200,000 incidences of sexual abuse in jails across the states (Howard, et al (2009). Women experience sexual violence because they are physically weak and unable to defend themselves. Women are also depicted as being sexually weak and are therefore vulnerable to sexually aggressive behavior. Women in prisons face various types of sexual offenses such as assault, groping during inspection, unnecessary supervision during showers and rape. Male correctional officers are the greatest perpetrators of these evils. About 705 of staff in female prisons are males. This has been a great concern for feminist and human rights activists. One of the hurdles to collecting conclusive data on the prevalence of sexual abuse in prisons is that, women who have experience other forms of abuse in their childhood are more willing to accept incidences of abuse within the prison. They are therefore less likely to report any abuse meted out against them.
Compared to male prisoners, women have a higher incidence of chronic diseases. Women come from a relatively disadvantaged socioeconomic background which exposes them to HIV/AIDS, poverty diseases and reproductive health conditions (Howard, D.L. et al (2009). Women prisoners suffer from common conditions such as diabetes and heart disease. In addition, they suffer from poverty related conditions such as malnutrition. Sexually transmitted infections such as Chlamydia, herpes, gonorrhea and syphilis have been recorded among female prisoners. The possible explanation is that many engage in sexually risky activities such as prostitution while under the influence of drugs or while trying to get some money to support their children (Howard, D.L. et al, 2009)..
The confinement of women in prisons has a greater effect on motherhood and family structures. Children are the biggest victims of the separation that results from confinement. Male prisoners are able to leave their children in the care of their mother or other responsible family members. Children belonging to female prisoners are usually committed to childcare services because their mothers were their only care givers. Many women in prisons are single mothers who are separated or divorced from their partners. Some are estranged from their families and have no ties to their immediate family members because they ran away from home at a young age. The children of incarcerated mothers are disadvantaged because they lack proper maternal guidance during the development of esteem and social skills. They cannot talk to their mothers or see them as often as is necessary for a strong mother and child bond to develop. Such children record poor academic results and often end up in juvenile justice system and later the prison system.
The department of justice is responsible for managing the local, state and federal correctional facilities. The department also conducts surveys on the prison populations to established important staffing and prison population data which are used in policy formulation. Such studies have revealed that the correctional system is ill equipped to handle the growing number of female prisoners. Only 4 federal jails are designated for women prisoners while 4 others are shared among men and women. Prison staff is also ill equipped to deal with the unique physical and psychological needs that women have. The large number of male staff in female prisons has been attributed to cases of sexual victimization of female prisoners. The justice system should be reviewed by experts such as legal experts, healthcare practitioners and social services officials to develop correctional systems that will serve female convicts better and protect them from the injustices in the current system.
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