Analysis of two theories of Intelligence testing
Over the years, man has remained one of the most complex and peculiar creatures on the universe. This distinguishable attribute arise from the fact that man has a higher intelligence level than other animals species; an idea that enables him survive, understand, adapt, and overcome environmental challenges. Although intelligence remains an indispensible component in human existence, scholars regard it as a controversial topic that elicits diverse views, arguments, and opinions from different quotas. The point of controversy has primarily centered on defining the term intelligence, developing and measuring intelligence, and use of intelligence tests in contemporary society. Despite the controversial views revolving on this subject, scholars have proposed different working definitions of the term intelligence. In essence, intelligence remains a multifaceted concept that integrates diverse cognitive abilities and skills, knowledge, and experiences, which enable an organism to survive, interact, understand, and adapt to the environment. This infers that intelligence remains an essential aspect that enables an organism utilize knowledge, skills, and experiences in resolving environmental challenges effectively. Howard (2004) defined the term intelligence as mental process constituted of independent and universal cognitive skills and abilities, which aid an individual to develop problem-solving skills, utilize knowledge and skills to accommodate environmental constraints, and assume a goal directed behavior (Benson, 2003).
During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, psychologists held the view that all humans had similar cognitive processes especially in terms of intelligence level. However, this was not the case because psychometric intelligence tests developed in twentieth century indicated that individuals differ in intelligence quotient (IQ) score. Since the development of the first psychometric intelligence test, psychologists have developed and proposed numerous intelligence tests, which are used for various purposes and in various settings including learning institutions, clinical setting, work place, and in the military. Later, psychologists also proposed intelligence theories, which shade more light on the use of intelligence tests in the society. Howard Gardner’s “Multiple Intelligence Theory,” and Charles Spearman’s “General Intelligence Theory,” are some of the familiar and commonly used theories of intelligence in contemporary society.
Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence Theory
In 1983, Howard Gardner proposed the theory of Multiple Intelligence that aimed at expanding the tradition definition of term intelligence. Unlike other psychologists who defined intelligence based on verbal and mathematical skills, Howards defined intelligence as a multifaceted component that integrates spatial relations, linguistic abilities, mathematics skills, music skills, and interpersonal relations; which enable individuals adapt and develop problem-solving skills, which remain applicable in various cultural settings (Benson, 2003). In the analysis, Howard felt that the tradition definition of the term intelligence was narrow in meaning, as it did not capture the way humans use their intelligence to survive, adapt, and develop problem-solving skills. In an attempt to refute Charles Spearman argument about general intelligence, Howard argued that humans have multiple intelligences, which occupy an independent part of the brain and each intelligence component does not squarely depend on the general intelligence factor as argued by Charles Spearman. In other words, humans have independent multiple intelligences, which form part of the brain system, but independent from each other. While developing the theory, Howard Gardner conducted numerous studies to ascertain credibility and validity of his predisposition pertaining to the proposed theory. Unlike other theorists who focused on psychometric tests scores coupled with Intelligence quotient (IQ), Howard Gardner focused on cognitive abilities, which remain universal across major cultures in the world (Stone, 2011).
Howard Gardner conducted extensive neurosurgical studies, which involved participants who had experienced brain damage to conclude the number of intelligences required to develop this theory. In one of the studies, Howard involved participants who had lost one of their cognitive abilities, but the subjects retained other mental abilities and skills. In the analysis, Howard Gardner established that participants who had lost one aspect of their mental ability were able to use the other mental abilities to conduct various tasks. This meant that different synaptic connections in the human brain affect a given cognitive process that is independent on the other areas. Based on this assertion, Howard Gardner concluded that multiple intelligences exist.
According to Howard Gardner’s multiple intelligence theory individuals have seven intelligences, namely; mathematic, interpersonal, musical, body-movements, linguistic, spatial, and naturalistic intelligence (Stone, 2011). Mathematical intelligence entails ability to solve arithmetic problems effectively and use of abstract reasoning to execute tasks. Interpersonal intelligence enables an individual to interact, associate, and form cordial relationship with others. Linguistic intelligence helps an individual to use verbal and language skills effectively. Spatial intelligence entails the ability to understand and conceptualize the visual information and execute art related tasks. Musical intelligence involves the ability to write, recite, dance, and compose a song. Body-movement intelligence entails the ability to dance, engage in sports, and perform other psychomotor activities. Naturalistic intelligence means the ability to understand the immediate environment effectively.
Charles Spearman’s General Intelligence Theory
In 1904, Charles Spearman proposed the General Intelligence theory commonly known as the Two-Factor theory using a statistical test analysis. Charles established that there exists a positive correlation in all psychometric intelligence tests. In the analysis, Charles established that individuals who scored high in mental tests also attain high scores in other tests whereas individuals who score low in mental ability tests tend to attain low scores in other tests. Based on this assertion, Charles assumed that an underlying factor influenced the positive correlation in all psychometric tests. Employing factor analysis approach, Charles Spearman established that two underlying factors namely, general factor denoted as “g” and specific factor denoted as “s” play this role and influence intelligence (Viren, et al, 2008).
Charles Spearman argued that the “g” factor influences all intellectual and mental processes because it remains the dominate intelligence component. In the same vein, Charles argued that the “s” factor influence a particular area in the brain that does not depend on other cognitive process. This means that specific intelligence is independent of general intelligence. For instance, having a specific intelligence in verbal skills may help one to communicate effectively, but this aspect does not mean that one has spatial skills to comprehend visual information. Based on this assertion, Charles Spearman argued that psychological tests should focus on measuring general intelligence and not specific intelligence.
Effectiveness of intelligence testing in light of cultural factors
Controversy over definition of the word intelligence persists until today. Some psychologists hold the view that biological, physiological, and genetically factors influence intelligence whereas others hold the view that cultural, economic, and environmental factors influence. Despite these predispositions, the fact remains that cultural and social factors influence intelligence. In most cases, cultural and social factors in a given community influence the way a child understands, comprehends, and internalizes knowledge, skills, and experiences, which constitute intelligence. In others words, different communities define and understand the meaning of intelligence differently; an idea that promotes biasness in intelligence tests.
For many years, psychologists have developed intelligence tests, which measures and define intelligence based on westernized ideologies. For instance, modern intelligence tests use IQ scores to establish children with learning challenges in schools. In most cases, a child who scores high in academic performance is regarded as being intelligent. However, this assumption does not hold true because the child may perform well in class, but perform poor in sports and other practical activities.
Based on this assertion, intelligence tests should consider cultural factors, which influence intelligence of the participants. Cross-cultural studies have established that way western communities define intelligence differs from the way African and Asian cultures define intelligence. Sternberg (2008) established that western culture inculcate values, which defines intelligence in terms of speed processing of information (Viren, et al, 2008). According to Ruzgis (2007) intelligence in African context, revolve on inculcating practical skills, which maintain interpersonal relations. This means that African children score high in intelligence tests, which involve use of practical skills (Sarah, 2010). Ruzgis established that Asian culture define intelligence based on the way one maintains interpersonal and intrapersonal relationships with others. This means that Asian cultures do not use IQ values to measure intelligence, but focus on effective use of inter and intra-personal intelligence abilities. Based on these assertions, it is clear that psychologists should develop intelligence tests, which consider cultural factors of diverse communities to avoid biasness.
References
Benson, E. (2003). Intelligent Intelligence testing. Journal of American Psychological Association, 34(2), 47-48.
Sarah, G. (2010). Intelligence testing. Journal of Intellect Analysis, 34(5), 278-290.
Stone, D. (2011, July 9). Psychological Musings: Intelligence Testing Article Analysis. Psychological Musings. Retrieved September 24, 2013, from http://psychological-musings.blogspot.com/2011/07/intelligence-testing-article-analysis.html
Viren, et al (2008). Beliefs About the Meaning and Measurement of Intelligence: A Cross-Cultural Comparison of American, British and Malaysian Undergraduates. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 22(1), 235-246.
