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Abstract
In order to give a comprehensive assessment of the ratio of drug trafficking and organized crime, it is necessary to study the history of drug trafficking in the transformation of an important branch of the criminal enterprise - such as how it happened with the bootlegging era of "dry law". As soon as concern over opium derivatives such as morphine and heroin, has led to the adoption of the extremely important on the value of legislation - the Law of Harrison, our historical review will focus on this addictive substance.
Historical Background
In the United States the very first time the "war on drugs" (in addition to "dry law") was a reaction to the opium trade. Opium is a depressant and analgesic (ie, a substance that facilitates, debilitating physical pain). It is produced on the basis of papaver somniferum, or opium poppy, which has many variations. "So far there is no complete clarity on when opium was used for the first time. Wherever this growing poppy, its young leaves are used in the preparation of all kinds of edible greens (spinach, sorrel, etc.) and salads. His soft, oily seeds have high nutritional value. These seeds can be simply there to squeeze them out of vegetable oil and bake in the poppy rolls, grinding, turning to poppy flour, or used as lamp oil. As a source of vegetable fat, prepared from these seeds oil ever could have great economic value and thus have a long-standing historical times attracted the attention of various human communities to opium poppy” (Merlin, 1984: 89).
The popularity of opium is easily explained. "When we give ourselves of the fact that before the beginning of the last century was the main goal of medicine in relieving pain and that therapeutic factors were considered more as the symptoms, not the cause, it will be easy to understand the widespread popularity of this drug, which by itself or in combination with other highly effective in meeting the needs arising in the huge number of cases that required the intervention of medicine» (Terry and Pellens, 1928: 58). In those days, when the practice was at the very basic level, opium has become an essential ingredient of countless drugs that were manufactured in Europe and then in America for the treatment of diarrhea, dysentery, asthma, rheumatism, diabetes, malaria, cholera, fever, bronchitis, insomnia and physical pain of any type (Fay, 1975).
Opium is a product for the manufacture of which requires intensive labor. Its production requires a significant number of repeated cuts a huge amount of poppy capsules . About 18 thousand of these boxes are still on one acre poppy field, able to harvest 20 pounds of opium (Fay, 1975). Before the beginning of the XVIII century, the supply of opium to Europe was very limited. In the XVIII century agronomic improvement in the plantations have led to an increase in opium production. Undertaken in the United States attempts to produce its own opium failed. Though poppies could be grown in many parts of the U.S., particularly in the South, Southeast and in California, the cost of labor and low opium resin morphine led to the fact that the preference was given to import opium (Morgan, 1981).
Prior to 1914 opium as the most important ingredient of many patent medicines were readily available in the United States (in fact, it was mainly about the clandestine practice of drawing up secret recipes for which no patent was not). The doctors and charlatans prescribed them as if the painful symptoms of a general nature, and in cases of specific diseases, «Initiators prescribing generic drugs accounted for lists of dozens of symptoms , some of which could actually be present in person , in fact, nothing more. All this was the most that neither is disastrous. The people who actually does not hurt, frightened accustomed to the consumption of health potions»(Young 1961:68).
Street Drug Dealing
At levels lower than multikilogram wholesale, sale of cocaine or heroin is readily available in business, requiring only a source of clientele and start-up capital. In many cities of the heroin trade in a variety of groups, including gangs of teenagers and young adults. In some areas of the country, especially in the cities of New York and Los Angeles, have a relatively stable criminal organizations that dominate the trade in heroin and cocaine on the scale of, say, a city block, new competitors: the young crack dealers. In order to enter into business krekovy is required to invest in it is initially very small amount of money. In this business have joined gangs or groups of friends and relatives, often provoking competition on the basis of unrestrained violence with the use of powerful firearms, including automatic weapons.
There are two most common causes of this violence:
First, trade was concentrated in neighborhoods where social control has been weakened by social and economic mobility has increased during the decade prior to the emergence of crack cocaine. Second, the rapid growth in the number of new drug-trafficking gangs that followed the advent of crack cocaine led to a competition. Accordingly, the domestic violence within these new trading crack groups applied for the maintenance of discipline in them, and the external force applied to keep the markets (the product of good quality), was more typical of the volatile markets for crack cocaine than for traditional drugs markets.
Some of these gangs have established direct contacts with major Colombian drug traffickers and extended the scope of their activities and operated by the drug markets in interstate level.
Thomas Michkovsky (Mieczkowski, 1986) studied at the Detroit operations of one of these retailers in heroin gangs organization that does not have a high level . At the center of their activity is the boss of a gang that gets heroin from the " Lieutenant " drug ring . Boss gives the gang of heroin each of its subordinate 7-20 couriers, young (aged 16 to 23 years old) black men , which he scored himself . Then, each of the couriers takes its place on the street next to a public road carriageway , which facilitates the purchase of the drug to those sitting in the passing vehicles. In order to avoid looting and robberies , each guarded by a gang of armed men with the participation of the gang boss .
Participate in the activities of these «trafficking networks» are usually young people who have committed the most serious known to law and the practice of acts of delinquent behavior : they are often employed as couriers street drug dealers - adults or older teens . Integrated in the loosely organized gang of 3 to 12 people each, these boys usually get their hands on drugs in small amounts, for example , two or three of the package or bag of heroin. They get these " units " provider "on credit ", " hands " or " loan" and should be returned to him from 50 to 70% of the street price of the drug.
Besides the fact that they sell drugs , these youngsters can stand " on the lookout " to lure shoppers and street vendors keep these customers , who are in fact the robbers. They themselves are typically consume marijuana and cocaine, but not heroin . Moreover, in some cities, dealers and suppliers prefer to hire such street operators, which during its operations are not "high" . However, they express line is not usually the same : it is intertwined with the commission of other crimes, such as robbery , burglary and theft (Chaiken and Johnson, 1988 : 12).
Trafficking cocaine , crack and heroin produced thousands of operators earners who control the specific local markets - public housing complexes built , a few city blocks or simply place on a street corner . Control is exercised through violence . However, most of those involved in street heroin trade , the net profit from this activity are very modest. Since the drug dealers on a larger scale usually work long hours and put themselves at great risk of violence imposed on them or their detention by the police , their incomes typically range from 1 thousand to 2 thousand dollars a month. Their less fortunate partners make up for the lack of means available to them at the level of the amounts of the minimum wage . Many are doing it to extract the money that they need to maintain their own habits to drugs, in order to add something to what they do for a legal activity or service , or both for that, and for the other. In krekovom business young people often work for the same amount of money that is less than the minimum wage, for example, for $ 30 a day - for the state " on the lookout ", or 50 cents per bottle sold to crack . Working long hours in very unpleasant conditions , they can hope for 100-200 dollars a week, where they do not have insurance in case of unemployment, health insurance , and nothing at all of the benefits that go along with hiring for legal work or the service. Held in Washington , DC, the study found that most of the drug dealers that were part of the statistical grouping , did not sell drugs every day, and their average annual income was about $ 10 thousand Those who sold drugs daily, monthly earning of about 3 , 6 thousand dollars (Reuter, McCoun, and Murphy, 1990). " A relatively small number of young people selling drugs, exhibit excellent entrepreneurial skill , old friends continue to trust them , and they skillfully use this confidence to move forward in the drug business . By the time they turn on the 18-19 years old , they may already have accumulated over several years of experience in the drug trade , they can be their own bosses in gangs and dispose of the amount in excess of $ 500 thousand in the year” (Chaiken and Johnson , 1998 : 12).
In order, doing cocaine business in the United States, be able to initiate the purchase of the first batch of the drug , it is necessary to have a link with the Colombian , Peruvian and Bolivian sources and money in an amount sufficient to perform this action . Cocaine business in the United States are involved, just a few steps from the Colombian source, a variety of people . Traditionally , that " coca " clientele - people who have , at least , the average income . Accordingly , those who sells them cocaine , usually selected from those owned or once owned a respectable (in other respects) the middle class ( the story of a gang of cocaine traffickers number yippie , see, for example, Bowden, 1987). However, the increased popularity of crack cocaine has made drastic changes in the drug trade at the consumer level . In particular , this has touched age of many retailers. These experienced researchers of the drug problem , as James and Ann Insiardi Potteger were shocked youth sellers of crack compared with the age of those who are traditionally engaged in the heroin business : " While both of these categories of businessmen are caught in their nets youth specifically those ages, when there is a formation of the human person , crack dealers are amazing in that they are much larger quantities are lifestyle drug offenders in a frighteningly young age »(Inciardi and Pottieger, 1991:269).
As is the case with respect to the ordinary and consumer goods , heroin, which is sold on the streets, often provided with a name and / or special character , whose purpose is to promote the conservation of loyalty "brand name " product. As at other stages of the drug trade , this business is at street level is saturated with violence. Paul Goldstein (Goldstein, 1985:497) reports that in the drug trade violence is sometimes used as a result of fraud in the company's name .
Traders indicate low-quality heroin trade name , which is popular. Consumers buy heroin allegedly benign , consume it, then repack it in paper bags for resale , along with milk sugar . " Popular " brand is bought, to mount a paper bag " crane ", the contents of the package again diluted for resale.
This practice brings this popular varieties of heroin dealers are very big disappointment. On the streets with their heroin appears bad reputation , and they are losing markets. Buyers adulterated heroin packets can approach them on the street and start talking , complaining about the poor quality of heroin and demanding to return them for a refund . After this benign heroin dealers are beginning to look for suppliers with adulterated heroin packets . This can be followed threats , assault and / or murder.
In the drug business , says Goldstein , violations of accepted standards , for example , the failure of a street drug dealer to a higher figure narkosistemy refundable amount of money often leads to violence. Violence is almost invariably accompanied by a street drug dealer robbery . If that robbed drug dealer wants to stay in business, he has insisted that for him revenge .
Source
Peter Dale Scott and Jonathan Marshall, Cocaine Politics: Drugs, Armies, and the CIA in Central America, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998; ISBN 9780520214491.
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