Religion in China and Japan
China and Japan have often been hailed as Asia’s pioneer nations when it comes to their overall development, contribution to history and rich tradition and culture, which not only transcended to nations they made contact with, but also featured the unique ideologies that shaped their respective nations. While both nations today are at odds in several key issues on politics, territory and even in ideology, their religious movements remained the same despite the changing world that challenges these beliefs. For the uninitiated, they would claim Chinese and Japanese religion is one at the same considering they share several religions. However, for those who have immersed themselves to understanding these two nations, it is visible that despite the similarities in religious affiliations, there are some teachings in these religious movements that makes it uniquely Chinese and Japanese. This paper will discuss the similarities between Chinese and Japanese religion in terms of their belief in mysticism and superstition, followers’ way of life religious repression on other faiths and the impact of religion to the state; and their difference in terms of their beliefs in God, the establishment of new religions and their interpretation of faiths.
Both Chinese and Japanese religious movements have several notable similarities that uniquely explains each other’s culture and traditions. For the first similarity, both Japan and China had religions based on mysticism and superstition which can be traced back since the ancient times. In the case of China, DuBois (2011) cites that that the Chinese had created the religious movement known as Daoism or Taoism, which is one of the three major religions of China. It is uncertain as to when Daoism/Taoism had been conceptualized, but speculations state that it was invented sometime around 551-479 BC around the time of Confucius by a man known as Laozi. Laozi had been known for his exceptional wisdom and for his origins (he is said to born already as an elderly by his mother), however, the people kept harassing him for advice that led him to flee China before writing the Daodejing (Book of the Way and Its Power) . Dillon (2008) states that Daoism/Taoism is the indigenous religion of China as it merged popular and folk religions to its traditions and beliefs. It is said that Daoism has two opposing positions which makes it difficult for many to comprehend. On the one hand, it provides a literary and philosophical tradition for the elite and on the other hand, Daoism also provides customs and practices that is included to the country’s folk religion. In terms of the first position, the literary and philosophical Daoism mostly concentrates with the mystifying texts of the Zhuangzi and the Daodejing, which promotes the flow of the natural world or the practice of the Dao. On the other hand, popular Daoism is the religion that believes on the idea of ‘immortals’ and the quest for eternal life . In addition to these beliefs on various gods under Daoism, Thomas (2009) stated that the Chinese are also very superstitious and would equate certain traditions or beliefs to specific events. For example, the Chinese believe that the number ‘four (si)’ means death and would remove anything four on buildings and the like. The Chinese also wear red when it comes to burials or in New Year as red is seen to have the capacity to drive away evil spirits .
Japan also has a religion directed to the country’s mysticism, traditions and superstitions. According to Ramakrishnan (2010), Shintoism or Shinto had begun since the early times when the Japanese had understood the concept of wetland agriculture, paving the way for the early Japanese to believe in the aspects of spirits and nature. Daoism/Taoism and Shintoism is somewhat similar as both religions are interconnected to Japanese mysticism or the “way of Gods”. Shinto believes that Kami is the one that guards the Japanese people and provides the country with natural resources such as caves, streams and good harvest. Many deities or gods have been conceptualized under Shinto. Like Buddhism, Confucianism, and Daoism, the Shinto belief also believes of the impact the departed may have over the living as they believe that a departed soul still possesses a personality which is why it is crucial to remove its malice through memorial rites and purification ceremonies. Shinto also believes on doing acts that promote peace and harmony as it would negate bad things and prevent the disruption of harmony between Kamis, nature, and the community .
Another observable similarity between Chinese and Japanese religion is their perception on how life should be treated. In terms of China’s Three Religions, DuBois (2011) cited that the teachings of these religions are somewhat similar especially as to how to treat life. Confucianism highlighted the creation of a moral governance system that would showcase ren (humanness or benevolence), which would then be in accordance with the li (ritual norms), zhong (one’s acceptance to their nature), shu (reciprocity), and xiao (filial piety). Human beings, under this faith, had also exemplified that they can learn, improve, and be perfect through hard work and communal service. Daoism/Taoism promotes the understanding on harnessing the powers of the universe to gain balance (yin and yang) with chi. In terms of Buddhism, it follows three of the main sects’ Four Noble Truths: life is suffering, suffering is caused by desire and stop desire. While these truths make it difficult for followers to attain balance, Chinese Buddhism enacts that while people suffer and die, one’s life force does not disappear due to the endless cycle of birth and rebirth (reincarnation). In this end, followers should believe in the concept of karma, which would give out points if one does well .
In the case of Japanese religions, Ramakrishnan (2010) and Hartz (2009) showcases that Daoism/Taoism and Shintoism is somewhat similar as both religions are interconnected to Japanese mysticism or the “way of Gods”. Shinto believes that Kami is the one that guards the Japanese people and provides the country with natural resources such as caves, streams and good harvest. Shinto also believes on doing acts that promote peace and harmony as it would negate bad things and prevent the disruption of harmony between Kamis, nature, and the community . For the shin shukyo movements, Clarke (2004) also foster several traditions from the religions they are derived from such as spiritual healing, prosperity, and social harmony. They also merge old traditions with new interpretations that may be considered an authentic branch of the specific faith .
Religious oppression is also a similarity between Chinese and Japanese religious movements considering the dominance of their respective main religions. In China, its history is marred with oppressing members from the Catholic Church, the Falun Gong cult, the Tibetan Buddhism sector and the Uighur Islams. In the case of Christianity, Xiaowen (2005) cited that Christianity had a very difficult time in adjusting to the country due to the disagreement between the Qing Dynasty’s Emperor Kangxi and the Pope due to the decision of the Pope in forbidding the Chinese Catholics to respect the teachings of Confucius and the Chinese ancestors. The resulting argument paved the way to the “century of ban” in China, especially for Western faiths . In the case of Smith (2009), China had also contradicted with the practice of the Falun Gong, which was introduced in the country in 1992. Arrests were done against members of the Falun Gong and the Chinese authorities stated that it is not an approved religion. The Falun Gong had protested against this treatment of the Chinese Communist Party in 1999, taking the battle online. The CCP continued to crack down the Falun Gong and brought them into labor camps and mental hospitals, using violence if necessary . China also fought against Tibetan Buddhists and ordered the restriction of religious practices in Tibet because both argued on economic disparities between the ethnic Tibetans and Han Chinese. Finally, Islam and Uighurs in Xinjiang had also felt the brunt of the CCP’s crackdown of religions as they believe that the teachings prominent in Xinjiang fosters terrorist attacks and the Islamic Uighurs felt they were being oppressed by China . In the case of Japan, Mullett (2002) stated that the country had also oppressed Christians especially in the time of the Tokugawa shogunate, banning Catholicism in 1614. Missionaries were expelled from the country and all the converts of Christianity were executed. Several rebellions had occurred throughout the 17th century, most notably the Shimabara Rebellion of 1637 and Christians were forced to hide their religion up to the time of the Meiji era .
The final similarity of both the Chinese and Japanese faiths is the influence of religion to the state, especially in the enforcement of a nationwide religion in favor of the others. In the case of China, the three religions have played a key role in politics, but not as influential as Confucianism. Yao (2010) cited that Confucianism had outlined an ideal society or governance which would enable proper development of its hierarchy and doctrines. It had also been beneficial for China as their mandate of Heaven had enabled them to have an effective approach over social and political issues that lasted even in the fall of dynasties and the preference of other emperors over Buddhism and Daoism . Upon the establishment of the Chinese Communist Party, they had allowed the practice of other religions under Article 36 of the Constitution. However, the CCP is a known atheist organization due to their belief in Marxism and communism. Members of the CCP are not permitted to belong in any religious movements or else they would be removed from the group . For Japan, Shinto had been considered the country’s state religion or as it was called before State Shinto, especially in the pre-war Imperial Japan. Matthews (2012) cited that Shintoism had been established as Japan’s major religion in 1869 by Emperor Meiji, applying it to various ceremonies and policies to ensure that the public exclusively practices Shinto. A special government department has been created for the very purpose to study Shinto and apply it, indoctrinating any religion that challenges Shinto’s power. People were taught to support patriotism to Japan and protect the land of Kami, practicing Buddhism or sectarian Shinto . Clarke (2004) had even argued that to sustain the State Shinto under the Meiji Government, new religions have been forced out or executed for the possible conspiracy against the country, the Emperor (who was then seen as the main head of several Shinto priest) .
While these similarities bring both Chinese and Japanese religious movements closer, there are still distinct differences that makes both countries unique: in teaching, establishment of new faiths and interpretation of faiths. In terms of its teachings, the shin shukyo movements believe in monotheism or the belief on one God unlike the other faiths that practice polytheism . Buddhism and Confucianism, in its end, does not believe in a creator god or gods unlike Shinto and Daoism. In this end, Buddhism mostly emphasizes on reaching Nirvana while Confucianism believes on sustaining virtue . In the case of new religions, aside from Shinto and the Western faiths, the Japanese have also been known for their creation of the shin shukyo or new religions as cited by Clarke (2004). Some of these religions have been a derivation of Shinto, Buddhism, Hinduism and some had even been influenced by works from Nostradamus and the Bible. Prior to World War II, these new religions have been prominent in several parts of the region and three had challenged Shinto (which was then the main state religion) and shamanism: Tenrikyo, Kurozumikyo and Oomoto (Nihon Sandai Shinkoshukyo) .
Finally, in their interpretation of religion, China and Japan have a different interpretation religions such as Buddhism. China mostly emphasizes on three Buddhist Schools: the Tian-tai School (focusing on the Lotus Sutra), the Chan School (now the most important Chinese Buddhist movement) and the Pure Land School (concentrating on the Amitabha Buddha teachings on Enlightenment). In the later periods, Chinese Buddhism had incorporated other sectors of religion like Taoism and Confucianism, diversifying Buddhism in the modern times. In Japan, they mostly concentrated on three schools regarding their interpretation of Buddhism: Jodo Shinshu, Nichiren and Zen. The Jodo Shinshu School had concentrated on Amitabha and his contribution in rebirth in the Western Paradise. Nichiren concentrates on the Lotus Sutra as it is the only means on attaining Enlightenment unlike other Schools. The Zen Sect concentrated on the mind and body, as well as the development of culture that enabled it to gain prominence in Japan even in the present century .
Looking at the nature of both Chinese and Japanese movements, it is visible that while they share several known religions and traditions, they still possess unique similarities and differences that makes their practices unique in their own country. In terms of similarities, both China and Japan still respect folk religion, superstitions and mysticism and established Shintoism and Daoism to respect these beliefs. Both countries also have similarities regarding their religions detailing how life should be lived and attain peace. Religious suppression is also a common factor in both China and Japan as both shared disdain over other religions that contradicted the main faiths practiced in the country. Finally, religion also plays a key role in the state as the government (the CCP and the Meiji Government) had forced a specific practice of religion in their regime. As far as the differences are concerned, they varied in the belief of Gods, the creation of new religions and the interpretation of Buddhism (which is a major religion in both countries). It is crucial to understand that while these faiths vary from the Western religions, these religions in China and Japan illustrate these nations’ unique ideology that helped shape these nations today.
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