In ancient Greek culture, the notions of masculinity were diverse. Possession of these ideals meant that a person acquired a heroic stature. In the conflicts pitting Achilles and Agamemnon, the basic ideals of masculinity emerge. In the Iliad, Hector profoundly lays bare the inherent Greek obsession with emasculating each other in competitions. In both situations, superiority in athleticism, sexual virility, and performance in speech, possession of materials and wealth, and physical attractiveness are aptly used to express masculinity. Moreover, winning battles and fighting off enemies symbolized a warrior-like characteristic which was also a definition of masculinity. The analysis of sections of the Iliad and incorporation of other external sources helps in unraveling the Greek notions of the heroic ideal that characterized the heroic image of Achilles’.
Almost all of the ideas that the current society holds about masculinity and manliness are many centuries old. The traditional ideas about masculinity were initially expressed in the early Greek civilization during the period between 750-400 B.C.E. The earliest stories that reflect the ideas that define a masculine life emanated from the Mediterranean basin, and can be traced all the way back to 2000 B.C.E. These stories shape the present day perception of masculine life (Nortwick, 2008, p. 1). These ideas that define a masculine life include assumptions that men are more rational whereas women are explicitly emotional. Furthermore, it is normally construed that it is the nature of men to be aggressive whereas women are normally passive. It is noticeable that all these ideas are firmly embedded in many cultures; Western, African and Asian ones. With the advent of feminist movements, these assertions about masculinity have faced extreme scrutiny to establish the truth in them, and also establish the causes for these differences in men and women (Nortwick, 2008, p.1). In Greek culture, it may be argued that this masculine ideality originated as a product of ideological choice within the culture and the assumed biological difference between the sexes. If they are false, their persistence in influencing our actions and thoughts is probed. These ideas of masculinity affected many aspects of human life in Greek culture including distribution of resources between men and women, and aspects touching on the worth and nature of human beings; with men being considered superior whereas women were thought to be inferior beings.
“The Epic of Gilgamesh,” a Mesopotamian poem composed around 1600-1100 B.C.E., and Homer’s Iliad, composed around 750 B.C.E on the island of Chios that was at that time inhabited by Greeks present important elements of a masculine ideality in Greek culture during this period. Both these essays dramatize the ways a man was supposed to move through his life. Additionally, they put their attention to the role of mortality in providing to meaning of masculine life (Nortwick, 2008, p.2).
In ‘The Epic of Gilgamesh’ bravery, being bold and having some wildness characterize the masculine ideality. Gilgamesh’s friend, Enkidu, was a wild man meaning he ran with wild animals and drank from watering holes like them. Before Enkidu’s death, both he and Gilgamesh decimate Humbaba, the Cedar Forest monster. This indicates extreme bravery and boldness in men, and they go to enjoy their victory in Uruk. This male force makes Ishtar, the goddess of sexuality, to be drawn to them, and she asks Gilgamesh to be her lover. When Gilgamesh declines, Ishtar makes an arrangement for the Bull of Heaven, another extremely fearsome monster, to attack them (Nortwick, 2008, p.2). The two men do not fear to be killed by this monster, but they team up to kill it. True to their belief, Enkidu manages to tear the bull’s hindquarters. This act shows the bravery and sheer male power that were part of the masculine ideal. The killing of Humbaba is typically heroic act in the mythical tradition of Greek culture. Gilgamesh and Enkidu were heroes by merely killing the monster, and hence assumed the guardianship of the civilization.
Homer’s “Iliad”, provides a rich model that describes how a man grows from adolescence to maturity. In Iliad, Achilles is growing up, passing through the various stages that were perceived to be necessary for producing heroes. The storyline is about the Greek army which is led by Agamemnon, besieges Troy, a fortified city on Bosporus shores, attempting to recover Helen, the wife of Menelaus, from her abductor called Paris. The directly aggrieved party is Menelaus, but the poem presents Achilles as the Greek hero. Achilles was the son of Peleus, who was a mortal from Thessaly, and Thetis, a sea nymph that was divine (Nortwick, 2008, p. 5).
Moreover, masculine life was a key element of young men in the Greek culture. The experience of male children was majorly judged as a preparation for the manhood ideal, rather than the existence that was interesting in itself. Most memorable narratives about young people from the ancient Greek culture usually show young adolescent males tending towards the threshold of adulthood. The “Homeric Hymn to Hermes,” a poem written in the sixth century, explores this characteristic that existed in Greek culture. Hermes is a super baby who assumes the masculine roles and powers of older males just on the day he was born. He springs from her mother’s loins and enters the adult world on his first day of existence. By the afternoon of his first day, Hermes has invented the lyre, he is already a thief, cattle rustler, and in leadership of other men. He steals Apollo’ sacred herd of cattle, sacrificed some, and consumed a few others (Nortwick, 2008, p. 25). Moreover, he is a spy when the night falls, and an accomplished a doorway keeper. From the foregoing, the infants who were thought to be immensely blessed, easily escaped the shortcomings of childhood and quickly assumed powers reserved for adults. The use of Hermes and Apollo to illustrate this point shows the established patriarchy in Greek culture. They both transform into mature adults in single bounds to illustrate that masculine, adult males were highly prized in this culture. Mature, masculine male adults were assumed to possess great ability, both physical and emotional, necessary for controlling themselves and their world. There was a tendency to judge blessed children against the standards of adults. The masculine ideal was normally a preserve of mature male adults. Children were normally grouped with slaves, women, and animals to indicate their inferiority, physical weakness, moral incompetence, and mental incapacity (Nortwick, 2008, p. 25). A masculine life, therefore was characterized with superiority, physical strength, moral competence, and a stable mental capacity.
Aristotle, writing in the fourth century, in the “Historia Animalia,” tries to lay bare the things that make men more masculine than women. To paraphrase his writing, masculinity was inherent in men by virtue that they were not susceptible to shedding tears, they were not complainant, held themselves in high spirits, are more shameful, and are less given to lying. Moreover, masculinity demanded that men were less likely to engage in deception, were decisive and extremely active. Additionally, a masculine life was characterized by dryness; Hippocrates noted that the male species flourished in dry environments characterized with fire from consuming dry, hot foods, and living an exceedingly dry kind of life (Nortwick, 2008, p.51). Hippocrates was convinced that the males were healthy and masculine by the virtue of being hard in their physical mold, staying dry and maintaining warmth. On the hand, women are less masculine because they considered compassionate, more susceptible to emotions cool, soft and wet. In Greek culture, it was considered healthier to be dry warm, hard, and warm. Women were thought to be biologically inferior to men because it was assumed that they were naturally, cooler, softer, and wetter than them. Men were less likely to be given to emotion; therefore, they were considered to be more rational (Nortwick, 2008, p. 73).
Most civilizations around the Mediterranean were constantly at war with each other ranging from raiding on each other’s homes and campaigning to seize the control of whole civilizations. Homer notes in the Iliad 6 that war was the work of men. (Homer, Iliad 6. 492). The fighting encountered in wars were mostly dueled hand–to-hand. War was a fundamental avenue for expressing masculinity. Men were the only suited to fight in wars, and the role of warriors of war exemplified quintessential masculinity. The Greeks believed that bruising battles and combat was a preserve for men. The masculinity required in wars is exemplified in the essence that war required physical strength. It was considered that men were naturally stronger than women because they were exhibited dryness and hence generally healthier. From this assumption, it was easy to assume that men could be relied upon whenever in combat. Another element is that, soldiers are expected to depend on each other when risking their lives to defend their communities. Women lacked the masculine mold to fit in war because they are prone to giving lies and exhibit untrustworthy behavior. In book 12 of the Iliad, Saperdon narrates about the life of a hero. He begins by asking, “Why are we two heroes?” (Homer, Iliad 12. 310-328). His answer is that they are honored by their communities because they take their fight to the frontline to protect their fellow citizens. Thus, masculinity was a necessary element for wars because it was from it that bravery was built.
Works Cited
Van Nortwick, Thomas. Imagining men: ideals of masculinity in ancient Greek culture. ABC-CLIO, 2008.
Rouse, W. H. D. The Iliad: The Story of Achillês. New York: Signet Classic, 1999. Print.
Mythagora. "Achilles: The Greatest Warrior of All Time." Mythogora Home Page. Web. 7 Dec. 2014. <http://mythagora.com/bios/achilles.html>
