Introduction
Many thinkers and scientists have proposed models and theories about how people learn; they are called learning theories. The learning theories are classified as behaviourism, cognitivism, constructivism, humanism and design-based. Behaviorism is based on the supposition that learning occurs for an organism through interactions with the environment. Behaviouristic school assumes that an organism always responds to a stimulus and the ‘responses’ are depends on the nature of the stimulus, i.e. rewarding or pain giving. Here, the learner is considered as a system that has the capability to respond to a stimulus and the learner is passive. The definition that emerged from the behaviouristic standpoint, states that learning is relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of experience. If behavior change happens through experience then it is due to learning.
In psychology, behaviorism is an approach which merges ingredients from philosophy, science and theory. As in physical sciences , the propounders of behaviourism wanted predictability in the study of behaviours. Hence they made the primary tenet that psychology should follow only the observable behavior of people and animals and need not regard unobservable aspects that take place within the individual. The behaviorists maintain that behaviors can be described logically without reference either to internal physiological conditions or to constructs such as feelings and beliefs. Behaviourism focuses on one particular type of learning: a change in observable behavior achieved through repetition of desired actions (stimulus), Behaviourism can be classified into three major mechanisms that determine learning i.e. Classical conditioning, Operant conditioning and Neo-behaviourism.
Classical Conditioning
Learning happens in many ways. One of the ways is by forming associations. Classical conditioning is an associative learning process that occurs through associations between a neutral stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus. The discovery of associative form of learning emerged from Ivan Pavlov's classic experiment with dogs. For understanding more about classical conditioning, it is vital to be familiar with the basic principles of this theory. There are four basic concepts on which this theory stands and that need to be grasped clearly; unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, a conditioned stimulus and conditioned response. The Unconditioned Stimulus is one that naturally and automatically activate a response. For example, when we taste our favourite food we feel joy, the food is the unconditioned stimulus and the good feeling is a natural response. The unconditioned response is a response that occurs automatically due to the unconditioned stimulus. In our earlier example, the feeling of joy in response to the taste of food is the unconditioned response.
The Conditioned Stimulus is a neutral stimulus when somehow associated with the unconditioned stimulus, triggers an unconditioned response. Later, the unconditioned response will be termed as conditioned response, because it is elicited by the conditioned stimulus. As in the earlier example, supposing that when we taste the favorite food, and listen to a particular music and if we repeat this procedure i.e. (tasting the food and listening to music), it is likely that later the music would elicit the natural response of joy. The music becomes the conditioned stimulus. The Conditioned Response is the learned response (associated) to the previously unrelated stimulus. In our example, the conditioned response is a feeling of joy elicited by the music. Previously the feeling of joy was due to taste of the food.
The Classical conditioning theory was serendipitously discovered by Russian physiologist who was studying the salivary behavior of dogs. During his experiments he used to ring a bell, before presenting the food to the dog. The dog salivated at the sight and smell of the food. After some time Pavlov noticed the dog salivated at the sound of the bell , even when food is not offered. From this observation, Pavlov proposed the theory of learning.
Disassociating the conditioned stimulus from conditioned response is also possible. An important concept proposed in the classical conditioning is “Extinction”. when a conditioned stimulus is presented without an unconditioned stimulus, then the likelihood of occurrence of conditioned response decreases. This is called “Extinction.” For example , children with school phobia may be exposed to experiences that creates joy and enthusiasm, for example, they may be allowed to take their pet to the school or their favourite teacher receives them in the class or may be allowed to sit with the child’s close friend, etc. After several such joyful experiences, the child will not feel aversion at the thought of school. The previous response will become extinct. Many of the superstitions are present in the society due to the action of classical conditioning principles. For example, the fear of number 13, the bad omen of a black cat crossing the road, failing to hear the church bell when you start to office and feeling that it is likely that some tragedy could occur, etc. Though this theory does not explain higher order learning , it is well enough to explain and apply for managing fundamental behaviours.
In classical conditioning the learning occurs by instinct or by reflex. Instinct and reflex are with the organism congenitally or through maturational process. In this learning theory no mental process is intervening between the stimulus and response. Even forming of the association also is a natural process.
Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning is a major section of behaviorism; the learning theory that states that human behavior is the result of positive or negative consequences. This theory proposes that there are antecedents and consequences to the behavior, an individual can change one’s behavior depending on the antecedents and consequences. Also, the forms , frequency and strength of behavior also can change as per the consequences. ‘Four’ major constructs dominate this theory; reinforcement, punishment, shaping and extinction.
Reinforcement is classified into two, positive and negative. When the behavior is followed by a stimulus (that is rewarding) to the individual it is positive reinforcement. Repeated positive reinforcement increases the likelihood of the behavior. For example, visitng canteen in the organization, if the employee finds his colleagues there, joking and sharing experiences, it is likely that the employee will visit the canteen during free time. Similarly, when the behavior is followed by the removal of a painful stimulus, it is negative reinforcement or escape. Repeated presentation of negative stimulus in the absence behavior will increase the likelihood of the behavior. For example, if the report is not presented on time the manger gives a black star, indicating not meeting the deadline.
When behavior is followed by a painful experience (stimulus), it is punishment. For example, an employee is dismissed for misconduct of sending pornographic images to the colleagues, it is punishment. In operant theory, sending porn is the response and dismissal is the stimulus. If an employee has to avoid dismissal , he / she has should avoid sending porn. Punishment should not be confused with negative reinforcement. In negative reinforcement, the person has to do (present behavior) something to avoid painful stimulus. In punishment the person has to stop doing (presenting behavior) to avoid painful stimulus. Another similar concept is Negative punishment, it is equivalent to Penalty. Negative punishment occurs when a behavior is followed by the removal of a rewarding object. For example, if the employee reaches late for a meeting in consecutive occasions , some of his credits in the amenity centre is cut. The concepts of reinforcement are very subtle, that it should be applied with proper understanding.
Operant theory has demonstrated that we can train people to acquire new behaviors by a principle called shaping. It is a process by which successive approximations of the desired behavior are reinforced In shaping, the form of stimulus is gradually altered across successive trials towards a desired level of behavior by rewarding exact units of behavior. For example, if the employees are expected to reduce their energy consumption , say 10 units per employee per month, it is possible to achieve that by following the principles of shaping. i.e. make employees reduce the consumption by few units by modifying their behavior at gradual levels.
In operant conditioning extinction occurs when previously reinforced behavior no longer produces expected consequences. After such repeated experiences, the behavior gradually stops occurring. But in the process of trials of behavior, if one of the trial produces the desired consequence , then the probability of the behavior increases again. This is called spontaneous recovery. Theory of extinction and spontaneous recovery leads us to another dominant set of concepts in operant conditioning, they are schedule of reinforcement.
In a true sense, B F skinner and other behaviourists have demonstrated that to a large extent the behaviour of humans can be controlled. Schedules of reinforcement is a prominent methodology to prove the findings of behaviorists. It is observed that when an individuals’s surroundings are controlled, the behavior pattern of the individual become somewhat predictable. A program of reinforcement is an agenda that determines how and when the reinforcement will be followed. Schedules of reinforcement influence how the behavior is learned and how it is maintained. Variations of irregular reinforcement induce definite patterns of behavior . There are four types of schedules of reinforcements.
Fixed ratio reinforcement – after every nth behavior, reinforcement is provided. For example, for every fith sale, the saleperson receives a bonus.
Variable ratio reinforcement – on average nth times of behavior, reinforcement is provided at random instances. For example on rotation, an employee of each department will receive a surprise bonus.
Fixed interval reinforcement– reinforcement is provided every n amount of time. For example, every Friday three employees will get an off from the job or on every Saturday evenings, between 7 – 8, the customers will get 5 percent discount.
Variable interval reinforcement – reinforcement is provided on an average of particular amount of time, but not always exactly at that time. For example, all employees are expected to give ideas about the product as it occurs to them, the product manager will declare the reward when a good idea is accepted.
B F Skinner, Ernst Mach and the John B Watson are the main behaviorists who propagated the behavioristic school to a large extent. B.F. Skinner’s work is most often quoted in the field of operant conditioning. For introducing empirical approach to psychology, Skinner invented laboratory systems for experiments. Many of Skinner's writings are targeted to the application of operant learning theory to human behavior. Though Operant behaviorists claim that they only consider observable behavior, to some extent they count the variables within the organism.
Comparison of Classical Vs Operant Theory
The two primary theories of behaviorism, the Classical and Operant have many similarities as well as differences. The first similarity is that in both the theories there is place for the phenomenon of association i.e. learning is acquired by association. Another similarity is that two of the constructs have position in these theories i.e. extinction and spontaneous recovery. Empiricism and observability are the cardinal principles followed by these theories.
As much as similarities between these two theories, there are significant differences too. First one is, the classical learning process is passive, while operant learning process is active. In the case of operant learning, the person has to act in the environment to learn, while in classical conditioning the environment acts on the person and the person forms association automatically. The major discrimination between these two theories is that the learner’s response is involuntary and natural in the case of classical conditioning, while in operant learning the response is voluntary and is under the control of the person. In operant conditioning the response occurs first followed by stimulus, however in classical learning the stimulus is followed by response. In operant conditioning the effectiveness of the learning is determined by the frequency of the reinforced behavior, while in classical conditioning the effectiveness is judged by the magnitude of the response.
Principles and contributions of Neo-Behaviorism
The major contributions to the neo-behaviorism reached from Tolman, Hull and Albert Bandura. Neo-behaviorist’s group can be considered as the bridge between behaviorism and the cognitive school. The transition and meaningful link between the behavior and the underlying mental processes were provided by these pioneers. While accepting the legitimacy of behaviorism, they proposed that learning behavior is a function of not just stimulus and response but also the organism’s variables such as motivation, meaning, memory etc.
Tolmans theory of Purposive behaviorism, is also referred as Sign Learning Theory, bridges the gap between behaviorism and cognitivism. Tolman considered that learning is a cognitive process and it involves forming beliefs about the environment and obtaining knowledge from the surroundings. Then the knowledge expressed through purposeful and goal directed behavior. He also stated though the concept of latent learning and cognitive maps learning need not be purposive. As we experience the world, we create various cognitive maps without purpose and later when need arises we recall the information from our memory. Observing people’s behavior he suggested that for learning to occur reinforcement need not be present always.
Albert Bandura’s social learning theory is also a prominent neo-behavioristic theory, which utilizes the principles of both behavioristic as well as the cognitive processes. This theory focuses on the learning that happens in a social context. People learn from one another by observing. Bandera’s theory is also known as observational learning, imitation learning or modeling. He proposes that a person always need not undergo an experience to learn, if an observer watches other person getting reinforced is enough, for learning to take place. If a child is being praised by his parents for doing the home work, another child watching this scene will also get a reinforcement to do the home work. This is a kind of vicarious learning. In real life a large part of our learning is by observational / imitative way.
Conclusion
Behaviorism gave an impetus to scientific psychology and no doubt the findings are very legitimate, plausible and applicable. But, reducing ‘learning’ to a mere chain of stimulus-response associations is an outrageous oversimplification. Learning has bigger dimension of understanding the relationships between events / object in the environment. Behaviorist do not talk of the higher order learning such as insights, intuition, innovation etc. and all behaviors of human being be wantonly generalized.
REFERENCES
Cheney, Carl D.; Ferster, Charles B. (1997). Schedules of Reinforcement (B.F. Skinner Reprint Series). Acton, MA: Copley Publishing Group. p. 758
Kennison, Shelia (2013). Introduction to language development. Los Angeles: Sage.
