Description of the issue
The number of colored students who secure chances for higher education in the United States has greatly been on the decline. The rates of admission and successful completion of higher education by students who are of African-American origins, Hispanic and the Native Americans origin have always trailed behind their White and Asian counterparts. Perhaps, this has been on the grounds of low income and discrimination based on race. Moreover, students with disabilities have also not been adequately represented in the higher education, in United States. Besides, the needs of the few African-Americans, the Hispanic and the Native American students who get lucky to acquire higher education do not have their needs guaranteed (Guillory, 2008)
The issue of student retention in higher education since 1975 after the publication of Vincent Tito’s article on dropout from higher education has since then remained and an issue of concern. A serious dialogue since the publication of this document ensued from various concerned parties within and beyond the borders of United States. Vincent Tito laid the groundwork upon which discussions have always been based. For over a century, the issue of minority student retention has been looked at, and policies revised from time to time. Since education is aimed at improving the well-being of man and the society, retention of student and access to higher education are matters of concerns to the society. Retention of students and its policies have impacts that can never be taken for granting on both social and economic perspectives. Based on theories that have been advanced to explain the factors that are considered when making decision on retention of students, the academic, social and cultural integration are the fundamentals in the retention policies (Townsend, 2009. ). However, owing to the imbalances that exist in the society, the place of minority students in the retention policy attracts attention.
Despite the rising need for educational advancement, the level of attainment of education for the African-Americans, the Hispanics and the American Indians has continued to drop substantially compared to the whites and the pure Asians (Orsuwan, 2007). In other words, the colored people have been discriminated in the provision of educational services to the American people. From statistics, only 11% and 17% Hispanics and the Black Americans respectively attained higher education in the United States in 2000. The Whites and the Asians, on the other hand, were 28% and 44% respectively. It presents a very wide disparity in the access to higher education in the United States. The question that one may ask is “what is the reason behind these large discrepancies in the access to higher education in the united states?’
Based on the framework that is used in the policy of student retention of students at higher education, there are manifold implications that the existing policies have had on the minority students. Economic, social, academic and cultural considerations on retention may not provide fair and equal chances for students. In this research, the focus is centralized on the retention of minority students in the higher education. Insights are developed into the issue by considering the policies on retention of students in higher education as well as making a critical analysis on the existing literature on the topic the retention of minority students in higher education.
Studies have shown that the population structure of America is on a great transformation and that the number of non-white citizens will soon outdo that of the whites. There is an urgency to review American Higher education policy on retention.
Statement of the problem
Can we say that the retention policy of students in higher education in the United States has mainly been centered on race, economic status and cultural background of the student rather than academic potential? The discrepancies that are observed in the retention of students in the higher education can be attributed to policies that do not accord the same level of importance to the minority students.
Literature Review
Several scholars have done significant research on the retention of students in higher education in the United States. The issue has been viewed in four perspectives. These include; academic preparation for college, graduation from high school, enrollment in college and the persistence in college to the completion of a Bachelor’s Degree.
Based on the statistics between 1995 and 1996, it was reported that of all the African American students and the Hispanics who enroll for higher education, only 46% and 47% respectively completed their studies to attain the award of bachelor’s degree. Conversely, the percentage of the whites and the Asians is 67% and 72% respectively. This depicts a very wide gap in the access and successful completion of degree programs among the American Populations.
Moreover, the students who come from poor backgrounds and those with a disability were also discriminated in the access and completion of higher education as proved by Gladieux and Swail in 1998. Even though many efforts were put in place from 1960 to address on the poverty gap, the ration of minority students who gat retained to that of the majority is still low. Even after giving equal opportunity for both the majority and the majority to have equal access to higher education, the difference is still large.
In 2004, Kuh and Love in their research realized that students who stood firm on their cultural origin by making strong cultural connections were able to withstand and complete their studies successfully (Kuh, 2004).
Academic achievement levels for African Americans, Hispanics and American Indians continue to be noticeably lower compared to that of whites and Asians. This may be attributed to the discriminatory student admission criteria, where the aspect of race is put into consideration. According Durkheim, social incorporation of higher education students raises their educational commitment and eventually increasing chances of successfully going through higher education. According to Tinto’s model of academic and social integration, several factors are believed to influence the retention of students in higher education. In his model that he developed in 1975, Tinto based his model on the theory developed by Spady in 1970. Being a sociologist, Spady came up with a theory to attempt to give an explanation to the high rates of abrasion process in higher education. Spady considered retention moreapparent among the students who are well integrated to the shared structure in the education field. He believed that there are shared values that if a student is not well integrated into then there are minimal chances of being considered for retention in the higher education system. In Spady’s argument, academic performance, normative congruence and support from friends are potential factors that determine the likelihood of qualifying for retention in highereducation in the United States.
Five years later, Tinto expanded on Spady’s model. He gave much attention to the manifold interactions within the education system that attributes to the students’ level of persistence (Jones, 2010). Tinto in 1975 alluded that an interaction between the students level of commitment to attaining the college goal of completion is a prerequisite for the decision of the student to complete or dropout. He explained his theory by analyzing six aspects that characterize the integration of the students. He believed that there are certain attributes that are shaped in the student by the style of upbringing before getting integrated into the postsecondary education. Besides, students cultivate academic skills and social skills that fuel their commitment to fulfill the college goal of completion.
Tinto continued to reiterate that as students make progress to higher education levels, they gain experience that determine the social integration process in the college. It is at this level that students acquire the virtue of goal setting and commitment to be able to make an informed decision on whether to persist or drop out of the college. He further confirms that a conformity of the students’ commitment and the goals of the institution determine the probability of persistence among the students in the higher education system. Retention, therefore, according to Tinto is dependent on the level in which the students personal determination and commitment conforms to the institution’s goals.
According to Tierney in 2004, students are not supposed to leave their personal identity back home as they pursue their education (Tierney, 2004). The existence of cultural supremacy dynamics that exist between the majority students and minority students in the university is important in the understanding of integration of the students at higher institutions of learning. He suggested that, for the students to be able to persist in higher education, they must be well equipped with the cultural capital (Wells, 2009). He argues that educational systems are characterized by the existence of manifold barriers that need students to be fully armed cultural awareness in order to persist.
In 2008, the works of Tierney were supported by Pidgeon who emphasized the need to attach value to the indigenous cultural knowledge (Pidgeon, 2009). He says that, in bodies where conventional culture and values dictate, original understandings and worldviews are frequently left out from the ideas of achievement in higher education and their equivalent retention theories. Therefore, recognizing homegrown and other marginal perspectives is very important in the understanding of extensive and more operational models of retention in higher education (Pidgeon, 2009).
This need to give recognition to indigenous knowledge had been supported earlier by Benham in 2006. He was for the belief that successful educational models were those that gave utmost regard to cultural identity and cultural capital(Benham, 2006). He continued on his argument that the theoretical framework on student retention should stem from the recognition of cultural and social capital. For instance, socio-economic status influence the students’ choice and access to college education (Rendon, 2000).
Therefore, in order to increase the level of integration and retention of minority students in higher education, there is a need for higher institutions to acknowledge and value the cultural capital of these minority students. Besides, the community should put up appropriate measures to increase the consciousness of the students to the social and cultural knowledge which is essential for securing an admission chance and the subsequent completion of a college or university education.
Analysis of the Retention Policy and its Implications
Based on the views of Cabrera, Castaneda, Nora and Gengstler, the policies and models on the retention of minority students in higher education have various implications. A combined consideration of both Tinto’s Social Integration model and Bean’s Model on the Departure provide an all-inclusive understanding of the retention and persistence than each theory would explain them on their own.
First, the financial aspects in the models give a significant influence on students’ academic integration, socialization, as well as their determination to keep on in college. Moreover, the two models have more similarities than differences. Inthe two models, there is consideration of the influence that pre-college attributes have on the students’ persistence and retention. In other words, pre-college characteristics determine the behaviors and actions of students while in college. They imply that persistence of students depends on a number of complex intermingling of various factors (Pidgeon, 2009).
The drawbacks in Tinto’s Model of social integration and Bean’s theory of students’ departure and retention lack practical proof. They are based on theorized concepts that do not have credible evidence and experimental proof.
Researchers have hinted that the Model that was advanced by Tinto is insufficient to be applied in understanding the concept of retention of minority students in the higher education. Arguably, it is unacceptable to agree with the dissociation of culture from the minority students to get full integration to the systems of higher education. Cultural detachment is a hard reality to bear. Students would always want to stick to their culture even after getting admission to higher education institution. This is the reason Tierney suggested that students are not supposed to leave their personal identity back at home as they pursue their education. In his argument, Tierney emphasized that the existence of cultural crescendos between the dominant students and minority students in the university is imperative in the understanding of incorporation of the students at higher institutions of learning. No wonder he suggested that, for the students to be able to persist in higher education, they must be well well-found with the cultural capital.
Persistence and retention of students is, therefore, not an issue in education system that can be taken for granting. Students who lack the fabric of the cultural foundation are usually forced to learn how to fit in their new cultural setting (Kuh, 2004). They have to engage in the understanding of cultural dynamics in order to persist in the system. Otherwise, they find themselves deemed unfit in the system and resort to drop out. Such students who are not culturally rooted find it hard to survive the complexities in the cultural make-up of the higher institutions.
Minority students and other students who are not well represented in the American Higher Education system are victims of biculturalism that compels an individual to live a life of two cultures. This system is described to be characterized by dual cultural competency. The minority students have to be well founded on their own culture and as well adjust to the standards of the new culture that is dominant in their institution. Therefore, retention is centered on ability to adjust and fit in the complex cultural setting.
Conclusion
Retention of the minority students in higher institutions in the United States has remained a concern for over long time. Owing to the fact that United States population comprises people of diverse origins, the students from the minority groups like the Hispanics and the Black African Americans are not as well represented in the higher education system in the United States compared to their Asians and the White Americans. This representation gap can be attributed to the bias policies that have for a long time been put in place to make consideration for retention. High dropout rates among the minority students in higher education in United States are greatly influenced by the difficulty fit in the cultural dynamics profound the education. Therefore, the best way to increase the persistence and retention level of minority students’ in higher education is to have the higher institutions of learning embrace a policy that acknowledges the cultural differences among the students who get admission especially those from the minority races.
References
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