Introduction and definition of elder abuse
Psychological and physical elder abuse
Literature review: The empirical research
Conclusion
- Practical implications.
Abstract
This literature exploration investigates abuse among elderly in the society. The focus will be on psychological and physical abuse. Even through many other forms of abuse co-exit along with these two types being addressed in this document a sociological analysis regarding the emergence, perpetuation and function of psychological and physical elder abuse within society will be highlighted. These will be reviewed embracing a paradigm that disrespect from the younger generation, social structures and marginalization among this group has produced such social dysfunctions in our generation.
Introduction and definition of elder abuse
Concepts like elder mistreatment; abuse of older women and abuse of older men have been used to describe this action. World Health Organization has defined elder abuse as a ‘single, or repeated act, or lack of appropriate action, occurring within any relationship where there is an expectation of trust, which causes harm or distress to an older person’ (World Health Organization, 2013).
Kerry Burnight and Laura Mosqueda (2011) have advanced theoretical models explaining the social dilemma. They contend that this is a relatively new phenomenon to the family violence science. Consequently, its empirical foundation lacks theoretical framework for understanding as well as explaining various features of its manifestations within the population. Further, they argue that efficient intervention strategies and prevention must be linked to a theoretical framework. Also, theory driven hypothesis testing is mandatory towards improving the impact of elder abuse within the society. Sociologists are still speculating adapting philosophical justifications, which are insufficient for instituting policy resolutions based on the magnitude of this social problem (Burnight & Mosqueda, 2011).
Precisely, in developing a model the researchers conducted an inventory related to empirical knowledge concerning elder abuse. Next they reviewed existing theoretical approaches explaining the etiology of elder mistreatment and finally designed a model, which from their perspective could appropriately describe the true nature of the problem. Features encompassed interpersonal theory; multisystemic culture; socio cultural theory and intrapersonal theory (Burnight & Mosqueda, 2011). In the literature review section of this research each theory will be discussed in detail. Below is a diagramtic representation of the researchers’ perspectives
Theoretical Approaches to the Understanding of Elder Mistreatment
(Burnight & Mosqueda, 2011).
Psychological and physical elder abuse
Bryan Payne (2011) in the Problem-Oriented Guides for Police Problem describes the problem of psychological and physical abuse as having two components. One aspect has to do with mistreatment and the second vulnerability. The police analyst cited related issues as being elder neglect; elder sexual abuse; patient abuse and financial exploitation of the elderly. Further it was explained physical and psychological abuse usually occur together (Payne, 2011). Consequently, the National Center on Elder Abuse defined physical abuse as applying physical force causing bodily injury; physical pain or impairment (National Center on Elder Abuse).
It involves kicking, shaking and many inexplicable acts. Meanwhile the emotional abuse accompanying these actions includes making threats, harassment and various forms of intimidation. Research reveal where physical abuse accounted for 11% of all abuses and emotional 15%. However, Payne (2011) clarified that this is not a true representation of the amount of abuse since some elderly are incapable of reporting incidences. Reluctance in reporting occurs due to fear of being placed in a nursing home and further neglected and police mistrust. Ultimately, it has been estimated that less than a third of elder abuse cases have been reported (Payne, 2011).
Likely, factors contributing to physical and psychological elder abuse cited by Payne (2011) relate to vulnerable targets; offender motivations; guardianship and isolation as well as community and cultural factors. In relation to vulnerability dementia and Alzheimer’s disease are the two greatest risk factors. Many caregivers usually react to violent behaviors displayed by these helpless elderly individuals. Offender motivation is described as factors in the offender’s character, which will make abuse on an elderly likely. These include elderly living with mentally ill children or siblings; substance abuse; history of violence; dependence; feelings of being burdened by the elderly and rationalizations blaming the elderly for initiating the abuse (Payne, 2011).
Since this social problem is increasing in our society and many others across the world with similar cultures governments were forced to create legislations protecting elderly from physical and psychological abuse among many others they endure daily in different environments. These include protective order statutes; guardianship; adult protective order statues; state health care and nursing home laws; Medicare/Medicaid laws; specific elder abuse laws; long term care ombudsman’s’ laws; traditional criminal laws; mandatory reporting laws and penalty enhancement laws (Payne, 2011).
Literature review: The empirical research
The assumption guiding this literature review empirical research relates to the paradigm that disrespect from the younger generation, social structures and marginalization among this group has produced such social dysfunctions in our generation. Theories of structural functionalism posit that society is a complex system consisting of parts/ institutions, which support each other for the common good as the human body. Consequently, disruptions in one parts affects other organ systems or the entire body/society (Macionis, 2011).
Hence, this literature embraces theoretical explanations endorsed by Burnight and Mosqueda (2011) being designed after their empirical elder abuse studies. The specific model encompasses four broad assumptions and supporting concepts in clarifying misunderstandings regarding the etiology of physical and psychological elder abuse in modern societies. They embody interpersonal theory; multisystemic culture; socio cultural theory and intrapersonal theory (Burnight & Mosqueda, 2011)
Interpersonal theory
Burnight and Mosqueda (2011) cite a few related theoretical assumptions in supporting their empirical position of the issue. Caregiver stress theory was highlighted as being a dominant etiological factor. This theory simply advances the assumption inadequacy of the caregiver to cope with demands required for efficient elder care. In response he/she becomes abusive to the vulnerable older person. Alternative perceptions indicate that these care givers were stressed prior to beginning care of the elderly. Blaming stress for mistreatment is just an excuse for their dysfunctional behavior which ought to be otherwise evaluated. Primarily the elderly victim is perceived as being dependant on the care giver initially and eventually a burden. This kis expressed through complaints running in families that other children do not want o participate in the care and just one or two children have to carry the weight of both physically caring as well as financial responsibility (Burnight & Mosqueda, 2011)
Caregiver stress theoretical empirical model
The next significant theory applied to empirically explaining physical and psychological elder abuse from the interpersonal paradigm relates to social learning theory. These theorists contend that cycle of violence theory; social learning theory and intergenerational transmission of violence theory are all episodes of elder abuse which may have been overlooked as normal in undeveloped or developing societies. Importantly, this tends to explain elderly violence/ mistreatment occurring within families where parents become dependents of children who perceived abuse during childhood either while being disciplined or from abusive parents (Burnight & Mosqueda, 2011.
Further contentions are that elder abuse could have been the norm from generations within societies, which went unnoticed as the way of life or elder care culture. In the same way children are whipped as a form of discipline elder ought to be punished when they do not comply with ism the motivation for elder physical and psychological abuse (Burnight & Mosqueda, 2011)
The other two significant assumptions linking interpersonal theory to elder mistreatment are social exchange theory and dyadic discord. The researchers explained that while the older person become victim of an abused relative or care giver the power relationship between the two participating entities within this relationship must be examined. Seldom elder would relinquish power to a younger person even a child worse yet to a caregiver whom he/she does not trust. As such, a power struggle emerges between the older person and care giver/ relative. Animosities also surface one towards the other and are more vulnerable gets the physical and psychological abuse (Burnight & Mosqueda, 2011).
For example, the psychology of aging carries its own emotional disturbances, especially, if the elderly becomes physically dependant due to chronic disease or financial insecurities. Accepting someone else’s services when always the elderly performs these duties initially will initiate apprehension. ‘Why is someone bathing when I can bathe myself? ’ Therefore the elderly may not readily accept the services of a caregiver nor family members until accepting that he/she is incapable of performing those duties at the time. Hence, the social exchange is not established and dyadic discord takes precedence. Conclusively, the clarification here is that social relationships are not unidirectional as happens in many case when elderly are in the care of their children or caregivers. On many occasions their power to choose is not just minimized, but taken away. Consequently dyadic discord ensues (Burnight & Mosqueda, 2011).
Social exchange Dyadic discord
Perceived contribution to the relationship
Perceived contribution to the relationship
Socio-cultural Theories
These theories posit that the abuser has a pattern of abusive tactics frequently exerting them on the victim. They are classified emotional or psychological abuse. In many societies across the world older people seem to be ascribed a lower status than younger ones even though they are not incapacitated. Social structures decide that a younger person is more adequate and therefore disrespect for age and aging is perpetuated in many cultures around the world. For eample, in many developing countries such as the Caribbean people are forced to retire from their jobs at age 55 (Nelson, 2002).
If at retirement they were still efficient organizations re-hire them to work under the supervision of younger less inexperienced employees. They can no longer be promoted nor function in a supervisory capacity. Immediately, their self-esteem is deflated and if these retirees live until 70- 80 years they are often rendered useless in their societies and not experienced resources from which younger professionals can learn be respectful. Arguments have been that this in itself is a psychological elder abuse system practiced by social structure organizations. As such, in the home children begin disrespecting parents who are still young at 55 and retired. They receive a pension, which seldom can take care of their financial needs so most of them seek employment to remain active and useful (Nelson, 2002).
Developed nations tend to keep their older employees a longer time in executive positions. These matured adults retire when they feel less capable of functioning efficiently. Consequently, greater respect for older adults is granted in developed nations’ work environments. Empirical studies reveal that among African nations the elderly are treated as very useful resources. Dr. Robert Butler (2011) subsequently developed the term ‘ageism’ meaning that some societies simply discard older adults as incompetent, which is emotional and psychological abuse. Importantly, the African philosophy regarding aging is exemplified in Nelson Mandela’s presidency of South African during his eighties he still being considered a tower of strength and epitome of knowledge (Nelson, 2002).
Precisely, in advancing the socio-cultural theory Burnight and Mosqueda (2011) argue that empirically it is a situation of power and control guiding decisions pertaining to age and older adults within the society rendering them obsolete at a very early age when there is so much unexplored virtue still to be utilized. If one were to examine power and control from a social structure level it is clear that social structures perpetuate emotional and psychological abuse and institutional manifestations escalate into physical abuse when elder become ill and eventually incompetent due to chronic disease (Burnight & Mosqueda, 2011)
Multisystemic theories
These theories embrace ecological assumptions including empirical variables from both abuser and the elderly being abused. In this theory the area of interest is adult child and elderly parent; family relationships regarding respect for parental authority inclusive of love value; impact of external institutions on family relationships and ideological values/norms of the culture. After examining specific variables researchers identified a macrosystem; exosystem; microsystem and an ontogenetic system for empirical evidence of elder abuse emergence applying multisystemic ecological theories (Burnight & Mosqueda, 2011).
Macrosystem variables used in providing empirical evidence pertain to age/gender disparities and societal aggression norms. Exosystem relate to the ecominc environment and integration into the society. Microsystem involves individual and family characteristics and ontogenetic includes physiological effects and behavior. Essentially, age/ gender and societal aggression norms are identified as employment preferences for younger people and subtle humiliation due to forced retirement at age 55 (Burnight & Mosqueda, 2011).
Exosystem influence on elder abuse could be perpetuated when children are taught to believe that parents are abusive if they try disciplining them during childhood. Some societies the State steps in and removes children from the home if parents use a whip as a form of discipline. They grow up with this subtle hatred and disrespect for adults. In societies where the rod is still used as a force of discipline adult children studies show solemnly care for their parents out of respect and obedience of spiritual law honoring father and mother for perpetuation of generational blessings. Societies where this value is nullified incidences of elder abuse both psychological and physical escalate (Burnight & Mosqueda, 2011). .
The relationship of respect for older persons or parents is removed. Growing up in some developed societies children mistreat parents from an early age due to parent child exosystem influence. Thus the microsystem dysfunctions among individuals and their families an ontogenetic feature depicted in physical and physiological elder abuse experienced in some modern societies. Ultimately, it reflects on the sociocultural context as it relates to development of disrespect from the younger generation, social structures and marginalization among this group producing such social dysfunctions in our generation.
Conclusion
Practical implications
In concluding this discourse pertaining to physical and psychological/emotional elder abuse occurring in both developed and developing societies it was clear that from empirical evidence that this is a modern culture emergence, which has its foundations in ageism manipulation in social structures seeping into families. This has created a new perception of age and aging in modern societies. Consequently, Dr.Georgia Anetzberger (2012) in perceiving a new theoretical framework for understanding elder physical and emotional abuse suggested that no one theory could provide adequate empirical evidence for clarification of its etiology. Therefore, an eclectic approach blending a number of theories may be more appropriate in addressing this social problem in our societies. She also recommended focusing on subcategories mistreatment such as cognitive impaired elderly and cognitive intact elderly since there are different risks.
The real implication lies in whether sociologist/ social worker could identify and fix the risk would it reduce physical and psychological elder abuse in either sub category. Next concern for these analysts was that should researchers identify preventative factors would it remove the effects of previous abuse and finally would these measures reduce incidences of elder abuse. In my opinion elder abuse is cultural dysfunction imposed by social structures (Anetzberger, 2012). To reduce it social structures have to teach respect for the elder to young people. Here is where the breakdown began.
References
Anetzberger, G. (2012). An Update on the nature and scope of Elder Abuse. Generations
Burnight, K., & Mosqueda, L. (2011). Theoretical Model Development in Elder Mistreatment.
US Department of Justice.
Macionis, J. (2011). Sociology. Toronto: Pearson Canada.
Nelson, T. (2002). Ageism: Stereotyping and Prejudice against Older People. MIT Press
Payne, B. (2011). Physical an emotional abuse of the elderly. Specific Guides Series
Guide No. 7
WHO (2013). Definition of Elder Abuse. World Health Organization.
